The marriage of the Hindu god Krishna to Rukmini, from the facade of a Singapore temple. Hinduism is an example of a polytheistic religion, in that it has several gods. The most important gods are Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu.
What is Religion? (1 of 3)
Religion is one of the most universal activities known to humankind, being practiced across virtually all cultures, and from the very earliest times to the present day. Although various writers have attempted a wide and general definition, none of these definitions have been universally accepted.
Religion appears to have arisen from the human desire to find an ultimate meaning and purpose in life, and this is usually centered around belief in a supernatural being (or beings). In most religions the devotees attempt to honor and/or influence their god or gods - commonly through such practices as prayer, sacrifice or right behavior.
Religion, magic and ideology
The question arises as to what can be included in what we call religion. Can we, for example, call Marxism-Leninism a religion, or humanism (the belief in humanity and reason rather than a god)? It is true that some people would be willing to include such beliefs in a modern definition of religion as 'anything to which we give ultimate allegiance'; however, such beliefs do not normally include any reference to a supernatural or ultimate being (or god). It is therefore better to describe them as ideologies, rather than religions, though they may share many of the characteristics of religion.
Among many peoples, for example in Africa and Latin America, there is a widespread belief in magic - the ability to change the physical world through ritual action (such as making someone sick by putting a curse on them). Can we call this religion? Again, though it shares some of the characteristics of religion, it differs in at least one major respect. In most religions there is a belief, in some form or other, in the sovereignty of a god or gods - that is, a belief that ultimately we cannot command the divine being or ultimate reality, but merely try to influence it in our favor. In magic, however, the world is understood in such a way that certain ritual actions automatically bring about the desired physical changes. This difference between the automatic result believed in by practitioners of magic on the one hand, and the provisional result as understood in most religions on the other, means that it is better not to regard magic as belonging to what we would normally call religion.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* PHILOSOPHY
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A:A;@
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What is Religion? (page 2)
ftsTitle
Akhenaton, the Egyptian pharoah, making an offering to the Sun-god Aten. Before Akhenaton's reign the Egyptians worshipped several gods, but soon after his accession Akhenaton introduced the cult of the single god, Aten, which was worshipped simply for giving life and warmth. The cult, however, did not last beyond his reign.
What is Religion? (2 of 3)
The constituent parts of religion
Religion is made up of both beliefs and practice. The academic discipline of theology (especially in the West, and in relation to the Christian religion) has tended to concentrate on belief. It is important to realize, however, that in some societies there is no word for religion. It is not a separate compartment of life - it is a way of understanding and living life itself.
Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish several different aspects in most religions. One widely accepted classification identifies the following aspects: faith, cult, community, creed and code. Faith is the internal part of religion; what people believe, their feelings of awe and reverence, individual prayer, etc. Cult is all that is involved in worship - buildings, images, altars, rituals, holy songs, community gatherings and so on. Community is the social aspect of religion - the worshippers at a particular church or temple, the wider denomination or sect, monks and nuns, etc. Creed involves all the beliefs and ideas held by the religion as a whole. It includes scriptures, and ideas about God, angels, heaven, hell and salvation. Code has to do with the way people behave because of their religious beliefs, and includes ethics, taboos, and ideas of sin and holiness.
Families of religions
The religions of the world can be divided into two major groups. The first of these groups is often called the primal religions. These include the traditional religions of Africa, Australasia, Oceania, some parts of Asia and the original peoples of the Americas. They also include the pre-Christian religions of Europe and the religions of other ancient peoples. These religions, though differing in detail, have several features in common. They all tend to be local - they are tailored to the particular tribe or people who practice them and their practitioners do not generally regard them as relevant to other peoples. Thus many of the myths and stories of such religions deal with the origin of one particular tribe. Secondly, modern primal religions tend to depend largely on oral traditions rather than on written scriptures. Finally, such religions are generally non-missionary, i.e. they do not seek converts.
The other main group is made up of what are often called the universal religions. This name implies that they see themselves not as local but as potentially universal - i.e. they have significance for the whole world. To varying degrees, therefore, they are missionary, i.e. they try to make converts. In addition, they have usually developed written scriptures that play a central part in the religion. Islam and Christianity are characteristic examples of this type of universal religion.
Within the universal group certain main families can be identified. The Semitic family includes Judaism, Christianity and Islam, all of which share a common historical and geographical background. The Indian family is made up of Hinduism, early Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism . The Far Eastern family includes Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism) and Shinto. Though any given religion will normally claim to have been inspired by God, it is important to remember that all religions begin and develop in particular historical, geographical and cultural situations that influence and mold the particular form that religion takes.
Another way of classifying groups of religions is to distinguish those with a single god (monotheistic religions) and those with several gods (polytheistic religions). Monotheistic religions include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, while the polytheistic religions include Hinduism, the ancient Greek and Germanic religions, and many present-day primal religions.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* PHILOSOPHY
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ftsTitleOverride
What is Religion? (page 3)
ftsTitle
Mosaic of the Christian God with the animal kingdom. Most religions have holy texts that recount the tales of God's actions, and, in particular, the creation of the world.
What is Religion? (3 of 3)
Religion and secularism
In the present century, particularly in the West, some people have seen evidence of a decline in religion, and its replacement by secularism (a belief that the physical world is self-contained, and can be perfectly well understood by the insights of modern science, without reference to any supernatural explanations). While it is perfectly true that in some societies there seems to be a decline in organized religion, there is little evidence of a decline in religiosity (religious feeling). Thus, while few people in Britain regularly attend church, most still claim to believe in God. This may indicate changing patterns of religiosity, rather than its decline.
One example of this is the widespread growth of new religious movements in many Western societies, offering alternative religious traditions not previously available. Thus movements such as Transcendental Meditation, the Unification Church (Moonies), the Hare Krishna movement and many others attract followers because at a time of rapid change many people are disillusioned with traditional religions, yet retain a basic religiosity.
It must also be remembered that while organized religion may seem to be declining in the West, in most other parts of the world the major universal religions (especially Christianity and Islam) are increasing at a considerable rate. Thus religion - always living and changing - nevertheless remains the near universal phenomenon it has always been.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* PHILOSOPHY
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
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ftsTitleOverride
Religions of the Ancient Near East (page 1)
ftsTitle
An Ancient Egyptian painting showing the dead sailing through the underworld to the Land of the Dead. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the journey to the next world was fraught with dangers, including monsters, lakes of fire and gates that cannot be passed without magic formulae.
@5?5Religions of the Ancient Near East (1 of 1)
The development of writing systems in the ancient Near East from around 3000 BC lays flesh on the archaeological bones of the region, revealing a considerable variety of religious beliefs and practices. Popular and private religion, while conforming to local norms, appears to have been fairly uniform, consisting of devotion to personal deities who were believed to answer prayers, often accompanied by sacrifices.
Greater variation attended funerary practices and beliefs about human destiny beyond death.
Regional and national differences are most marked in community and national cults. There is evidence of this in extensive temple remains, ritual and mythological texts, official inscriptions, and monuments. All the national cults - apart from Zoroastrianism and Judaism - were polytheistic, and gods and goddesses tended to be rationalized into hierarchical or family groupings. Superficially, these appear to have been 'nature religions', worshipping the natural forces of the world, but in fact they were more complex structures, symbolizing cultural and individual identity, and the realities of social hierarchies and power, as well as natural/environmental factors in communal life.
Egypt
The pharaohs of ancient Egypt were regarded as divine, and were called 'Horus' and 'Son of Re'. The autocratic rule of the pharaohs was legitimized by the mythology of Re as the Sun god and the ruler of gods; as 'Son of Re' the pharaoh embodied the life-giving power of the Sun. Horus was the son of Isis, the Divine Mother, and of Osiris, the god of the inundation, vegetation and the dead. As Horus, the pharaoh embodied the periodic renewal of life and fertility borne on the annual inundation of the land by the Nile. The temple cults reflected the pharaoh's divinity, and his rule of justice was further reinforced by the conflict myth - Horus as order conquering Seth, god of disorder. To augment their powers, local deities were often linked with national ones; the most significant was Amun, the god of invisibility, one of the characteristic elements of chaos out of which the Earth emerged. From c. 2000 BC he was combined with Re to become Amun-Re of Thebes, whose temple at Thebes was to become the most powerful and wealthiest in Egypt. The short-lived 'Amarna revolution' (c. 1350 BC) under Akhenaton promoted the cult of the Aten (whose creative power was manifest in the disc of the Sun), in opposition to Amun-Re. In the Old Kingdom, the pyramid became the means of royal burial and a symbol of the pharaoh's ultimate power as the son of Re. In the later pyramids, ritual texts known as pyramid texts first began to appear. These texts contain spells and accounts of the afterlife, and later appeared in democratized form as coffin texts in the tombs of the Middle Kingdom nobles. They later developed into the Book of the Dead, a collection of spells and prayers designed to secure a safe and prosperous life for all people in the Land of the Dead, the Land of Osiris. The destiny of divine kings thus filtered down as a promise of future happiness to the common people.
The Egyptians could not imagine death to be different to life in the land of Egypt and so the preservation of the body was one of the prerequisites for survival in the afterlife. Detailed methods of preservation and mummification were developed and refined over the centuries. By the New Kingdom, elaborate burial rites, once the prerogative of the royal family and their entourage, were considered the norm for those who could afford them. The body was buried alongside servant statuettes, food, clothes, tools, jewellery and other luxuries, and the tomb walls were inscribed with hymns, incantations, spells and colorful illustrations of life in the next world. Even the poorest Egyptian could hope for a place in the Land of Osiris with the appropriate texts and the most basic tomb provisions and methods of embalming. It was believed that the body and contents of the tomb were brought to life by a priest during a ceremony known as the 'Opening of the Mouth'. The dead man or woman would then go forward to be judged by the gods of the underworld but, armed with the Negative Confession, a denial of 49 possible offenses contained in the Book of the Dead, a future in the Land of Osiris was assured.
Canaan
The Western Semitic city-states of the Levant were never unified, but often under the control of the great powers. Relatively homogenous religious patterns prevailed, apart from the monotheistic religion of the Jews. Our chief source of information, Ugarit (Ras Shamra in northwest Syria), has yielded extensive texts discovered in a priest's house adjoining the temple of the god Baal. The Ras Shamra texts reveal a pantheon of gods under the control of El, the 'Creator of Created Things', and his counterpart, Asherah (the mother goddess). Texts narrate the conflict of Baal (the storm god) with Yam (the ruler of the sea) and with Mot (death and sterility). In his struggle against other gods and forces, Baal is aided by his sister and vindicator Anat, goddess of fertility and war. A third goddess associated with fertility is Astarte, the Canaanite version of the name Ishtar, the Semitic mother goddess. Astarte's functions were superseded by Anat, although there is a tendency for the distinctive features of Asherah, Anat and Astarte to fuse together. The myths associated with the Canaanite pantheon are commonly interpreted as an allegory of the seasons, but it is perhaps better to interpret them as a reflection of the fragile maintenance or order (cosmos) in opposition to disorder (chaos) Cult in these religions seems largely to have consisted of animal and occasionally human sacrifices, the dramatization of myths, and enactments of the sacred marriage (which may, however, have been no more than public consummations of royal marriages). Kings were regarded as divine, and former kings were invoked as 'saviors'. The dead were thought to sleep in their tombs, and were nourished with offerings of food and drink.
Mesopotamia
Of unknown provenance, the Sumerians had settled in southern Iraq before 3000 BC. They developed writing and thus left the first records of religion in the region. Developing cities each had their own pantheon of deities, though many were assimilated to dominant types (Nanna - Moon, Utu - Sun, An - sky, Ea - storm, Enki - Earth, Inanna - the mother goddess, equivalent to the Semitic Ishtar). Sacred marriage myths and rites were especially popular. Semitic migrations led to the rise of successive empires - Akkad, Babylon and Assyria. The resulting religions preserved many archaic Sumerian features, although adapted to the new cultures. Superficially nature deities, the gods of Mesopotamia were, as further west, complex beings who also symbolized moral and social values. They witnessed and guaranteed treaties, chose kings, led them to war, and overthrew cities, thus participating in history.
As elsewhere in the ancient Near East, temple cult consisted largely of sacrificial offerings to divine images. Temples tended over a period to develop into ziggurats. It was on the ziggurats that the Akitu festival was celebrated: the creation myth was narrated, proclaiming the victory of Marduk (Babylon) or Asshur (Assyria) over Tiamat (the primordial deep). After ritual humiliation, the king was confirmed in his rule - as the earthly agent of Marduk's life-giving blessings - and then performed the sacred marriage.
These ancient religions of Egyptian, Sumerian and Semitic origins overlay older forms, and were in Asia further influenced by Indo-European peoples appearing in the area.
Anatolia (modern Turkey)
The Hittite empire of the second millennium BC has left little clear information on religious matters. Many mythological texts were translations of Hurrian or Semitic originals. The myth of the dragon Illuyankas and the storm god has Indian, Greek and Semitic equivalents. The Telepinu myth (of a disappearing god whose departure brings disaster) may relate to the Persephone tradition that also appears in Greek mythology. Cult appears to have conformed to patterns observed elsewhere.
Following the decline of the Hittites the kingdom of Phrygia emerged in the same area. Phrygia was the centre of the cult of Cybele, an Earth goddess whose priests were eunuchs. This cult later spread to Greece and Rome.
Mitanni
In the third millennium BC, people called Hurrians seem to have emerged from Armenia and appear in significant numbers in various Near Eastern cities. By the mid-second millennium, they were ubiquitous in Syria and northern Mesopotamia. At this time Indo-Aryan migrants, bringing horses and chariots to the region, formed an aristocracy among the Hurrians, and developed the great empire of Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia and eastern Syria.
As with the Hittites, their religion appears to have been eclectic, incorporating various features met with in the Vedas of India. These in turn influenced local cults, and there is evidence of 'Vedic' gods such as Indra and Mitra as far south as Palestine. The story of Mitra (meaning 'treaty') may lie behind the biblical motif of the covenant between God and his chosen people. It has even been proposed that the Hebrew divine name Yahweh derives from the Indo-European Dyaus (meaning 'Day' or 'Bright One', the name of an ancient sky god).
Persia and Zoroastrianism
Later waves of Indo-Europeans entering Persia (Iran) pushed the Indo-Aryans into India and the Near East. These later Indo-Europeans also practised a religion akin to that of the Vedas. Many ancient myths are related to Indian versions, and the same deities are found. In northeast Persia in the late second millennium (possibly c. 1200 BC) a religious reformer named Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek) preached a simplification of the old polytheistic cosmology. Life meant a choice between Ahura Mazda ('wise lord') and Angra Mainyu ('hostile spirit'), embodying good and evil respectively. Ahura Mazda was assisted in his divine purposes by angelic beings, the Amesha Spentas ('bountiful immortals'), who represented moral values. A person's destiny after death (i.e. whether they went to heaven or hell) was determined by his or her choice. Zoroastrianism appears to be the earliest 'salvation religion' in history.
After an obscure prehistory, Zoroastrianism appears, already in a much developed form, as the national cult of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Zoroastrian dualism (i.e. seeing the universe in terms of a struggle between good and evil) may have influenced some strains of Greek and early Jewish thought, and Zoroastrian ideas on the end of the world may also have contributed to later Jewish ideas. Zoroastrianism survives in the religion of the Parsis of India. Persia was also the home of Mithraism, which became an important cult in the Roman Empire.
NW/JO'B
THE PRINCIPAL GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
AMUN God of Thebes, sometimes represented as a man,
sometimes with an erect penis.
ANUBIS The jackal-headed god of the necropolis, patron of
the embalmers.
ATEN Creator god manifest in the Sun disc.
ATUM The original Sun god of Heliopolis.
BASTET Cat goddess.
BES Domestic god, usually depicted as a dwarf.
EDJO Cobra goddess who appears as the pharaoh's
protector on the royal diadem.
HATHOR Often represented as a cow, a cow-headed woman,
or a woman with a cow's headdress. Recognized as
the suckler of the pharaoh.
HORUS Falcon god, identified with the pharaoh during his
reign. The son of Osiris and Isis, Horus grew up to
avenge his father's murder by Seth.
IMHOTEP Architect of the Step Pyramid chief
minister of Djoser (c. 2700 BC). Later venerated as
the god of learning and medicine.
ISIS Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus.
KHEPRI The scarab-beetle god, identified with the Sun god
Re as creator god.
MAAT Goddess of truth, justice and order, depicted as a
woman with an ostrich feather on her head.
NEKHBET Vulture goddess, who sometimes appears beside
Edjo on the royal diadem.
NEPHTHYS Sister of Isis.
OSIRIS God of the dead. Identified with the dead king and
depicted as a mummified king. Also god of the
inundation of the Nile and of vegetation.
PTAH Creator god of Memphis and patron of craftsmen.
Represented as a mummified man.
PTAH- God combining the principal gods of creation,
SOKER- death and the afterlife. Represented as a
OSIRIS mummified king.
RE or RA The Sun god of Heliopolis and the supreme judge.
Other gods aspiring to universal recognition
would often link their name to his, e.g. Amun-Re.
RE-HARAKHTI Falcon god, incorporating the characteristics of Re
and Horus.
SEKHMET Lion-headed goddess, wife of Ptah, venerated in
the area of Memphis. Regarded as the bringer of
sickness and destruction to the enemies of Re.
SETH God of violence and storms. Brother and
murderer of Osiris, represented as an animal of
unidentified type.
SOBEK Crocodile god.
THOUERIS Hippopotamus goddess, the patron of women in
childbirth.
THOTH The ibis-headed god of Hermopolis, scribe to the
gods and inventor of writing.
CAPTION
The ziggurats of ancient Mesopotamia were brick-built temple towers, generally consisting of a series of rectangular terraces of diminishing size. They were regarded as 'stairways to heaven', at the top of which gods and men communicated, and probably provided the basis of the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. This example was built in the 15th century BC.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* JUDAISM
* ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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p462-1
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The Primal Religions: Ancient Europe (page 1)
ftsTitle
Apollo, the Greek god of the arts, considered to be the archetype of male beauty. The Olympian gods were not regarded as models of morality - Apollo, for example, devised a variety of unpleasant fates for the women who refused his advances.
The Primal Religions: Ancient Europe (1 of 3)
The earliest evidence of what seems to be religious activity and belief in an afterlife dates from the Upper Palaeolithic period (30 000-10 000 BC). Cave paintings dating from 15 000-11 000 BC found in France appear to show rituals connected with hunting, and figurines as old as 25 000 BC suggest a mother goddess or fertility figure. But reconstructing the religion of preliterary times is a hazardous task - there is so much we can never know.
Some scholars believe the religions of all the Indo-European peoples had common features; but Greek, Roman, Celtic and Germanic religion (not to mention old Iranian and Vedic religion, also belonging to Indo-European peoples) display important differences and have complex histories.
Ancient Greek religion
Written evidence about religion in Europe begins with the Linear B texts of Mycenaean civilization. These show the importance of Poseidon the sea god and of 'the Lady' of various locations (presumably a mother goddess). Some other divine names occur, including Zeus and Hera, which later appear in the epic poetry of Homer. Homer's gods lived ageless and immortal on Mount Olympus, but acted like humans - and not the best-behaved humans. They could change shape, intervene in human life, and might respond to gifts and prayers to change human destiny - but they did not change human nature.
The Olympian gods were taken for granted in the literature of Classical Greece. They were incorporated into the workings of secret societies (for example, the Eleusinian mysteries), and into healing and divination cults (for example, the oracle at Delphi). By the 6th century BC they were part of the official worship of the Greek city-states. But ancient Greek religion had little to do with morality, and the moral, metaphysical and scientific concerns of the Athenian philosophers of the 5th and 4th centuries led to very different ideas of God. These ideas challenged popular religion, and in 399 BC the philosopher Socrates was condemned for atheism and corrupting youth by undermining the gods of the state.
The conquests of Alexander the Great spread Greek language and ideas through Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt and the Middle East. The resulting Hellenistic civilization fused Greek and Oriental cultures and outlooks. The names and worship of the Olympians spread everywhere, but other cults - of the Egyptian Isis and the Phrygian Cybele, for instance - spread too. The Greek philosophical use of reason was combined with Oriental mysticism and the quest for immortality, and Greek rulers realized the political usefulness of Eastern ideas of divine kingship.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME
* THE CELTS
* THE INVASIONS
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* EPICS AND ROMANCES
Outline
Encyclopedia
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The Primal Religions: Ancient Europe (page 2)
ftsTitle
Mithra slaying the bull in a Roman bas relief. The cult of Mithraism was very popular in Rome until Christianity found imperial favor.
The Primal Religions: Ancient Europe (2 of 3)
Early Roman religion was probably shaped by the Bronze Age culture of the Etruscans and was concerned with the agricultural cycle. Two forms of religious expression developed. Domestic piety recognized household gods (lares and penates), while the state cult - conducted by a high priest (the pontifex maximus) and other specified officials - ensured corporate well-being. As Rome encountered Greek culture, the state deities were identified with Olympian equivalents. As the Roman Empire expanded, its armies brought back foreign cults and religious ideas. The most important of these cults - until the official Roman adoption of Christianity in the 4th century ad - was Mithraism. This cult was based on the worship of Mithra or Mithras, the Persian god of light, truth and justice, whose killing of a cosmic bull was echoed by his devotees in ritual sacrifices. A male-only mystery cult, Mithraism reached Rome in the 1st century BC, and became particularly popular in the army.
Generally speaking, however, Roman official religion resisted innovations, or admitted them only when of proven worth. Divine honors were accorded to Juleps Caesar after his assassination, and to Augusts, most of his successors, and various members of the imperial family at death. In the Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire living emperors were saluted as divine. The Christian rejection of the Olympian gods and the Oriental cults was partly foreshadowed by the Greek philosophers; it was the conflict with state cult that eventually brought about the official persecution of Christianity.
Stones from Stonehenge, England. The circular setting of stones dates from the late Neolithic Period and Early Bronze Age (c. 1800-1400 BC). Although the supposed connection with the Druids has no basis, it is still believed that it was a place of worship but the nature of the religion it served is still unknown. The alignment of the stones still suggest to some a temple for sky worship but this is by no means definite.
The Primal Religions: Ancient Europe (3 of 3)
Celtic religion
The Romans have left us descriptions of the religions of the Celtic and Germanic 'barbarians' on the fringes of their empire. The Romans recognized some divinities with similar functions to certain gods of Rome, and archaeology shows how Roman and Celtic religion could merge. But we have no 'insider's' account of pre-Christian Celtic religion and much remains uncertain. Some Irish stories hint at a Celtic High God, but the commonest Celtic religious image is a male figure with horns - evidently a fertility figure. Sometimes the horned god has an 'earth mother' consort. Traces of places of worship occur close to fertility-giving water - at springs, wells and river sources. Human sacrifice seems to have been common, and the human head to have had special significance. Severed heads often occur in Celticimagery, and the frame of a great sanctuary found in France has niches to hold heads. Several observers mention 'druids' conducting sacrifices and divination ceremonies.
Germanic religion
The religions of the Germanic peoples survived into the Middle Ages: Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Orkney did not become Christian until the 10th and 11th centuries, and Sweden not till the 12th. We know most about the later forms, especially from Norse literature; but the Norse stories were themselves written down in Christian times and give no complete picture even of Viking belief and practice, still less that of the Anglo-Saxons and other North European peoples.
Germanic religion had many divinities. In early times, three in particular were worshipped: Wotan or Woden (Norse Odin), father of the gods and the slain; Tiw or Tiwaz (Norse Tyr), the giver of law; and Thor, the thunder deity. (These gods gave their names to Wednesday, Tuesday and Thursday respectively.) In the Norse literature, Tyr plays little part. Odin and Thor belong to the Aesir, the gods of Asgard, who defeated the Vanir, another race of gods. Aesir and Vanir became reconciled, and the Vanir Frey and his female counterpart Freya, closely associated with fertility, are major figures. There is no High God, only a chaos of divine energy. The worshipper chose the divinity thought most likely to serve him. Odin was the natural patron of warriors, and his Valkyries took dead heroes to his great hall, Valhalla. Thor seems to have been the most popular divinity, and images of his hammer were used for protection. In the end, the gods themselves pass away in the great combat of; the Tree of Life,, will renew itself and the world when they have gone.
THE 'TWELVE GODS' OF MOUNT OLYMPUS
('By the Twelve!' was a form of oath)
ZEUS Sky deity, ruler of the immortals. 'Father of gods
(Roman Jupiter) and men' (but not creator).
HERA Consort of Zeus, guardian of marriage and
(Roman Juno) childbirth.
POSEIDON 'The earthshaker', ruler of the sea.
(Roman Neptune)
DEMETER Goddess of corn and crops.
(Roman Ceres)
APOLLO Averter of evil, source of prophecy and divination;
(No direct Roman sometimes associated with the Sun, music and
equivalent) poetry.
ARTEMIS Virgin goddess of hunting and wild animals;
(Roman Diana) originally a mother goddess, and sometimes
associated with the Moon.
ARES God of war.
(Roman Mars)
APHRODITE Goddess of love and fertility.
(Roman Venus)
HERMES Messenger of the gods, guardian of the market
(Roman Mercury) place.
ATHENA Goddess of wisdom and virgin protector of the
(Roman Minerva) household; patron of Athens.
HEPHAESTOS God of fire and volcanoes; patron of smiths.
(Roman Vulcan)
HESTIA Goddess of the hearth; patron of the
(Roman Vesta) city of Rome.
Divinities not among the Twelve but important in popular religion included: DIONYSUS (Roman Bacchus), associated with wine and crops, and worshipped with orgiastic rituals; and ASKLEPIOS (Roman Aesculapius), source of healing.
PEOPLES AND PLACES IN NORSE RELIGION
AESIR The race of gods including Odin
and Thor. Defeated the Vanir.
ASGARD Home of the gods.
BALDER 'The Beautiful', son of Odin,
tragically slain by Loki.
FENRIR 'Great Wolf', son of Loki; bound
up by Tyr, but will break free at
Ragnarok.
FREY Fertility god, one of the Vanir.
FREYA Frey's sister, consort of Odin.
FRIGG Odin's wife. Her name is preserved
in 'Friday'.
HEL Kingdom of the dead; also
personified as Loki's daughter.
LOKI The trickster god of Asgard.
Imprisoned in a cave for the
murder of Balder, he will break
loose at Ragnarok.
MIDGARD The world of men. It is held by a
coiled serpent, who will show
himself at Ragnarok.
NJORD Father of Frey and Freya,
associated with ships and sailing.
NORNS Three maidens who rule the fates
of men and daily water the world
tree Yggdrasil.
ODIN Chief of the Aesir; god of battle,
(Old Germanic Wotan, poetry and death.
Anglo-Saxon Woden)
RAGNAROK 'The twilight of the gods', the
(German coming day of destruction for
tterd
mmerung) Asgard and Midgard and their
inhabitants in a battle with the forces
of evil.
THOR God of thunder.
TYR A war god, has bound Fenrir.
(Old Germanic Tiwaz)
VALHALLA Odin's great hall for warriors.
VALKYRIES Spirit maidens who guide in battle
and conduct the chosen slain to
Valhalla.
VANIR The race of gods associated with
fertility. Defeated by the Aesir.
YGGDRASIL The self-renewing world tree, which
forms the center of the worlds of
gods, giants and men. Odin hung for nine days in its branches to gain secrets from it.
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The Primal Religions: Modern Times (page 1)
ftsTitle
Older boys from the Cameroon undergo the initiation ceremony into adults. At the root of most initiation ceremonies is the contact with the spiritual world that transforms them.
The Primal Religions: Modern Times (1 of 3)
The primal religions that survive today are the religions of non-literate, usually tribal societies. Unlike the universal religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism - which have a wealth of written records and scriptures - the primal religions have no written sources. This does not mean, however, that primal religions are without history or are in some way
fossilized' remnants of a past age. Like the universal religions, they have long and complex histories.
The word
primal' is used to convey the idea that these religions came first in human history, and underlie all the major religions of the world. By studying the religious beliefs and customs of primal peoples we can learn much about the religious heritage that we all share. It is wrong to think of these religions as primitive. They often contain beliefs and ideas about the world that achieve high levels of sophistication.
Where are primal religions found?
There are many thousands of primal societies scattered throughout the world - in North and South America, Siberia, the Arctic, Central Asia, Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. There are over 700 separate peoples in sub Saharan Africa alone. Some societies number only a few hundred members, others a few million. They live in very different environments, ranging from the Arctic tundra to the tropical rain forests.
Every primal society has its own culture and its own unique religion - in fact there are as many primal religions as there are primal societies. However, these religions have enough in common in terms of beliefs and practices to make it possible to group them together as primal religions.
Components of the spirit world
In almost all primal religions there is a conception of a supreme god, sometimes prominent in religious life, sometimes remote and uninterested in human affairs. The Ashanti of central Ghana call their god Nyame and other West African peoples have similar names for their god - Nyonmo, Nyama, Ngewo. The supreme god of the Yoruba people of Nigeria is known as Olorun,
Owner of the Sky'. He is the creator of all things, the giver of life and breath, and the final judge of all people. Belief in a supreme god is found throughout the African continent, but in many parts he is considered so great and remote that he is not worshipped. Divinities and ancestors, who act as intermediaries between people and the supreme god, are worshipped instead. Only in times of extreme distress is the god directly approached by people.
Divinities are powerful named spirits, each with their own specific characteristics. In West Africa, the Americas, Asia and Polynesia, people believe in a multitude of divinities other than the supreme god. Many West African peoples have large pantheons of gods who are involved in daily human life. They require many temples, shrines, priests, images, rituals and offerings. Among the Igbo of Nigeria, the earth deity Ala is the most important divinity, and every village has its shrine to Ala. This shrine is the most important in the village, and the priest who tends it is the head priest of the village. Offerings of wine and yams are made to Ala before planting the land, and at harvest.
Virtually all primal peoples believe in spirits or souls of ancestors that survive the body after death and are capable of interfering in the lives of the living for good or ill. They have the power to do harm, but at the same time they are respected and thought of with affection. Their power to intercede in the lives of the living is connected with their desire to maintain social harmony. They can send illness or other misfortune to those who misbehave towards their fellow kin. Ancestors are honored by the living through ritual offerings and prayers.
As well as powerful divinities and ancestor spirits, most primal peoples believe in numerous minor spirits, who may be good, malevolent or capricious. They may be the souls of the forgotten dead, who haunt the living and play tricks on them. Spirits live in all sorts of places - in rocks, caves, mountain passes, river crossings, even in animals and insects. They are unpredictable and people are careful not to offend them. They must be treated with proper respect, and small offerings of food are left when people pass by their dwelling places. Among Arctic hunting peoples, spirits commonly take animal form. Inuit (Eskimo) hunters enter into a special relationship with animal spirits, who help them in their quest for game animals.
Mana is a spiritual power or life force that is believed to permeate the universe. Originally a Melanesian word, it is now applied by anthropologists to spiritual power in other primal religions. Mana is not a spirit, and it has no will or purpose - it is impersonal and flows from one thing to another, and can be manipulated to achieve certain ends. Charms, amulets and medicines contain this power for the benefit of the wearer or user. It can be used for good or evil purposes - it is thought to be present, for example, both in a sorcerer's poisons and in Western medicines.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
Outline
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ftsTitleOverride
The Primal Religions: Modern Times (page 2)
ftsTitle
A witch doctor attending a death ceremony. In addition to their healing roles, some witch doctors often mediate between people and the spirits.
The Primal Religions: Modern Times (2 of 3)
Structures of religious life
The sacrifice of an animal or plant is a communication and communion with the spirit world. The animal or object sacrificed acts as an intermediary between people and a being of the spirit world. For the NA of Sudan, for example, sacrifice is the most typical and expressive act of their religion. Most Nuer sacrifices consist of an offering of an ox to Kwoth (their supreme god).
Initiation ceremonies take place in all primal religions to mark the transition of a person from one religious and social status to another - from bachelor to married man, for example, or from dead person to ancestor. Initiation can also mark the entry into a religious profession. Novice shamans, for example, have to undergo special initiation ceremonies. At the heart of initiation is an encounter with the spirit world from which a person emerges spiritually transformed. The most common type of initiation marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. During these ceremonies adolescents learn behavior patterns, myths and sacred traditions of their people, the names of the gods, and above all the relationship between people and the spirit world as it was established at the beginning of time.
There are a whole range of religious specialists, from the priests, prophets, diviners and sacred kings of Africa to the medicine men of North America and the shamans of Siberia and the Arctic. Their role is to mediate between people and the spirit world. A priest's role is to serve a divinity or divinities, and to carry out specific ritual and ceremonial duties. A prophet is someone chosen by a spirit to deliver a special message. This message often involves changes to the social and religious order. Diviners, with the help of spirits or by using various techniques, diagnose disease or solve problems for people.
Myths are sacred narratives about the beings of the spirit world. All primal peoples have their own set of stories that express their understanding of the world and their place in it. Myths are often creation stories relating the origin of the world, and of human beings and animals.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
A Voodoo ritual in Haiti. Voodoo - which combines elements of West African religions with elements derived from Roman Catholicism - is practiced by the descendants of Black African slaves in parts of the Caribbean and South America. In Voodoo rituals, dancers enter trances and an animal (usually a chicken) is sacrificed.
The Primal Religions: Modern Times (3 of 3)
Primal religions today
Most primal peoples today have been profoundly influenced by contact with more 'sophisticated' and powerful societies and their religions. This has led to the development of new movements with-in primal religions, and in some cases to new religions. Most of these movements have developed out of interaction with Christianity. In Papua, New Guinea and some other Pacific Islands, for instance, primal and Christian elements have combined in movements, often called 'cargo cults', to create a new society, and in North America renewed resistance by Native American ('American Indian') peoples to White domination is expressed in a revival of some elements of traditional Native American religion.
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SHAMANISM
Shamanism is generally found in hunting and gathering cultures among peoples living in scattered, often migratory groups.
It is the dominant religious element among the Inuit (Eskimo) from Greenland to Alaska, and among the reindeer herders and fishers of northeastern Asia. It also occurs to a lesser extent in other places, for example in some African religions - but there it is not a central feature of religious life.
The shaman is a religious specialist - either a man or a woman - who, in times of trouble, mediates with the spirit world on behalf of his people. The shaman's power lies in his ability to enter an ecstatic trance. During ecstasy he sends out his soul to communicate with the beings of the spirit world. The shaman is often called upon when a shortage of game animals threatens a group with starvation, and in such cases the shaman enters a trance and sends out his soul to the spirit who controls the animals. The shaman's task is to find out why the spirit has withheld the game and to persuade the spirit to send more animals to be hunted. The shaman can also use his power to diagnose and cure disease.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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The Religions of India (page 1)
ftsTitle
A fakir, or Hindu holy man, meditating. Fakirs are often thought to have developed amazing physical control, which enables them, for example, to walk unharmed on hot coals.
The Religions of India (1 of 3)
India is home to what is - alongside Judaism - the world's oldest surviving religion. Hinduism, generally referred to as sanatana dharma or 'eternal tradition' by Hindus themselves, has a history of some 4000 years. Its earliest roots lie in the Indus valley civilization in the period before the Aryan invasion of north India in around 1500 BC. It was the Aryans who developed much of what is now commonly associated with the Hindu tradition.
Although officially a secular state, India is still a highly religious state, with 80% of the population (550 million) being Hindu. There are also other important religious traditions: over 80 million Muslims, 27 million Christians and 14 million Sikhs, together with smaller numbers of Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, Jews and those following tribal religions.
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, though differing, have some common themes. They all share the idea of a continuing cycle of birth, death and rebirth (samsara), and the belief that individuals suffer the consequences of their actions (karma). Both of these ideas are linked to the idea of transmigration - that the soul is continually reincarnated in different bodies (human or animal) after the last body dies, and that what form this body takes depends on actions in the previous incarnation.
The Hindu tradition
All the religions speak of dharma, usually said to mean 'law', 'duty', 'way' or 'nature'. Both Hindus and Sikhs refer to their religious leaders and teachers as gurus, and all the religions except Sikhism hold up celibacy and asceticism (the renunciation of pleasure and luxury) as ideals.
The earliest scriptures, the Vedas, were compiled by the Aryans. In these texts sacrificial rituals and the role of the brahman priest are described. The authority of the brahmans in Indian religion has continued to be significant - despite the many movements that have challenged it, such as Buddhism, and Jainism.
Between 500 BC and AD 500, in addition to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, India saw the growth of the Hindu tradition, building on the Vedic past but developing in new ways. The great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (incorporating the Bhagavadgita) were compiled. They told the stories of Rama and Krishna, both of whom were seen as avataras or incarnations of the great god, Vishnu. These gods became increasingly popular along with Shiva (the destroyer god) and the goddess Devi, and later became the inspiration for devotional poets and religious sects.
All these gods and goddesses have innumerable manifestations, i.e. they appear in many different forms and with different names. There are also a large number of minor gods, spirits and demons. Reflecting this, within Hinduism there are a large number of different sects worshipping a particular god or goddess, or even a particular manifestation.
* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* BUDDHISM
* ISLAM
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
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The Religions of India (page 2)
ftsTitle
Hindu priests perform a ceremony.
The Religions of India (2 of 3)
Hindu worship and pilgrimage
The social and religious aspects of life for all Hindus is inseparable. Closely bound up with Hindu belief and practice is the caste system, a hierarchical system of social and religious stratification. Everyone is born into a particular caste, and for Hindus, this and their stage of life - as student, householder, retired person, etc. - determines how they live.
Most homes have a corner set aside for worship at which family members offer food, flowers, incense and the light of a candle. It is often the women who lead these daily puja rituals, although everyone can take part.
Many different gods and goddesses are worshipped, some well known (such as Krishna, Shiva and Durga) and others (like the goddess of smallpox) renowned for particular activities. Some are known only to people in a particular area and may be worshipped to ensure local protection. Hindus believe that the divine can be manifested in any number of gods, objects or people, which then become worthy of worship.
The brahman priests are required to keep a high level of purity and a knowledge of the ancient Sanskrit language and of ritual practice. They lead the rites of passage at times of initiation, marriage and death. In a village there may be other specialists who are responsible for communicating with local spirits for such purposes as healing, blessings or exorcism.
A Hindu temple (mandir) may be a huge, ornate building dedicated to the worship of a major deity - visited particularly during festivals and pilgrimages - or it may be a small shrine by the roadside at which offerings to a local spirit are made. The Hindu calendar celebrates the anniversaries of deities and saints, seasonal events, and the new year. At these times, many Hindus undertake pilgrimages to nearby sites or to major religious centers such as Varanasi (Benares) to immerse themselves in the sacred waters of the River Ganges. It is here that a Hindu may go to die with the hope of achieving final liberation (moksha) from the cycle of death and rebirth. After death, the body is cremated, a practice dating back to the time of the Vedas.
Jainism
Founded by the ascetic Mahavira in the 6th century BC at around the same time as Buddhism, Jainism shares with Buddhism a belief in no god. With the rise in popularity in India of the gods Vishnu and Shiva, Buddhism gradually declined. Jainism, however, has not died out and remains strong in the west of India.
Non-violence or ahimsa is central to Jain life and has influenced those of other religions too, like Mahatma Gandhi. Jains believe that all living creatures have souls and must not be harmed. They are therefore strict vegetarians. Many are nuns or monks, the ascetic life being encouraged as the true path to non-violent, personal liberation.
The Parsis
Parsiism is a monotheistic religion derived from Zoroastrianism, whose adherents fled Persia (modern Iran) in the 8th century AD to escape Arab persecution. Most Parsis are now found in western India, particularly Bombay.
Parsi worship is centered in fire temples where a sacred fire - the representative of God or Ahura Mazda - burns continuously. Rather than burying or cremating their dead, which they believe would contaminate earth, fire and water, Parsis expose the bodies in circular 'towers of silence', where they are eaten by vultures and other birds.
Parsis have maintained their communal identity by keeping the symbols of the sacred shirt (sudre) and cord (kusti), by encouraging marriage within the faith and by supporting Parsi business and educational ventures, charitable concerns and housing colonies.
* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* BUDDHISM
* ISLAM
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
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The Religions of India (page 3)
ftsTitle
Ganesha, the elephant-headed Hindu god. He is worshipped as the remover of obstacles and is the god of good luck.
The Religions of India (3 of 3)
The Sikhs
The Sikhs, like the Jains, are comparatively small in number in India. Sikhism, however, is an important religion, particularly in the north, where there has been a call for a separate Sikh homeland, Khalistan, in the Punjab. In the 1980s, a minority of extremist Sikhs began a campaign of terrorism to achieve this aim.
Sikhs are proud of their history and still remember, in their prayers and festivals, many of the events in the lives of their ten gurus. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion, and was founded by the first of the ten gurus, Nanak (1469-1539). The Sikh gurus were critical of the ritual and social aspects of Hindu tradition, rejecting the caste system. They were political as well as religious leaders, evolving the idea of the warrior-saint and standing up against the rule of the Muslims who had dominated north India since the 13th century.
The foundations of Sikh life are the teachings of Nanak on how to lead a good life and seek final union with God. Also of fundamental importance was the formation by the last guru, Gobind Singh (1666-1708), of the Sikh community, with its shared symbols and the names 'Singh' and 'Kaur' for men and women respectively. The shared symbols are the so-called five K's worn by Sikh men.
Equality is an important Sikh ideal, and this is symbolized by the sharing of food in the gurdwara. This is the place of worship where Sikhs meet and where they are in the presence of their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib. The most important Sikh temple is the Golden Temple at Amritsar, built in the late 16th century.
Many Sikhs begin and end the day with prayers from the holy book. Their aim is to sanctify ordinary life, keeping the mind and heart set on God. Of the four major religions of India, it is only Sikhism that has turned away from the ideals of asceticism and celibacy and focused instead on the householder.
Indian religions around the world
Half of the world's Sikhs, though Indian by origin, live in other countries, notably Britain, the USA and Canada. This is also true of India's other religious groups. In Nepal and parts of Southeast Asia, Hinduism is now an indigenous religion, originally exported from India many centuries ago. More recently, migrant Indians have taken Hinduism, Jainism and Parsiism with them all over the world, to Fiji and Mauritius, Trinidad and Guyana, Britain, the USA and Canada.
The impact of India's religions now extends far beyond India itself, and from the 1960s many people in the West began to be attracted to Indian religions - not
only Buddhism, but also various Hindu sects, such as the Hare Krishna movement. Some such sects have in fact evolved particularly to appeal to Westerners.
HINDU GODS AND GODDESSES GODS OF THE VEDAS
Indra Thunder god, god of battle
Varuna Guardian of order; divine
overseer
Agni God of fire
Surya God associated with the Sun
MAJOR GODS OF HINDUISM
Brahma The creator; linked with
goddess Saraswati
Vishnu The preserver; with Shiva,
one of Hinduism's great gods.
Vishnu has ten incarnations or
avataras, and is married to
Lakshmi.
Shiva A great god, associated with
destruction. In Hindu
mythology, Shiva is married
to Parvati and is the father of
Ganesh.
Ganesh The elephant-headed god,
worshipped as the remover
of obstacles and god of good
luck
Hanuman The monkey warrior-god
associated with the god Rama
VISHNU'S TEN AVATARAS
Matsya The fish
Kurma The tortoise
Varaha The boar
Narasimha The man-lion
Vamana The dwarf
Parasurama Rama bearing the axe
Ramachandra Otherwise known as Rama,
identified by his bow and
quiver of arrows. The god of
the Ramayana epic, married
to Sita.
Krishna The important god featured
in the Bhagavadgita. He is
worshipped particularly as a
baby and as a flute-playing
cowherd and lover of Radha.
The Buddha The great teacher from the
6th-5th century BC and
founder of Buddhism
Kalki 'The one to come'; a future
avatara
THE GODDESSES
The goddesses are manifestations of the great creative spirit or Shakti. The most popular are:
Parvati Wife of Shiva; also known as
Uma
Durga All-powerful warrior
goddess, also known as
Amba, and linked with Shiva
Kali Goddess associated with
destruction
Lakshmi Goddess of beauty, wealth
and good fortune, wife of
Vishnu
Saraswati Goddess of learning, arts and
music, and wife of Brahma
MAJOR FESTIVALS IN INDIA
April Hindu / Sikh New Year
Jain Mahavira's birthday
July Hindu / Jain Monsoon begins
August Hindu Krishna's birthday (Janamashtami)
September Hindu Remembering ancestors (Shradh)
October Hindu Celebration of goddesses (Durga Puja)
Hindu Rama's victory over Ravana (Dashera)
November Hindu / Jain / Festival of Lights (Divali)
Sikh
Sikh Guru Nanak's birthday
December Sikh Guru Gobind Singh's birthday
January Hindu Pilgrim fairs (Kumbha Mela)
February Hindu Festival for Shiva (Mahashivaratri)
March Hindu / Sikh Spring harvest celebration (Holi)
Parsi New Year (No Ruz)
* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* BUDDHISM
* ISLAM
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
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Buddhism (page 1)
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Theravadin Buddhist monks in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Theravadin Buddhists believe that to imitate the Buddha by becoming a monk is the best way to attain enlightenment.
Buddhism (1 fo 3)
Buddhism originated in India around 500 BC with the life and teaching of Gautama the Buddha ('enlightened one').
According to tradition, Prince Gautama (?563-483 BC) was born into luxury, but after seeing an old man, a sick man and a corpse he realized that he too would grow old, become decrepit, and die. A meeting with a wandering religious seeker inspired Gautama to leave home and seek liberation from the endless cycle of birth and death through yoga or meditation.
After unsuccessfully attempting to gain liberation by depriving the body of food and comfort, Gautama rejected asceticism and sought a middle way between luxury and self-mortification. He sat in meditation through the night, and attained awakening or nirvana (literally the 'blowing out' of the flames of passion and craving), overcoming the attachments that would have caused him to be reborn in the world.
The Buddha attracted disciples, and these formed the nucleus of the Buddhist community or sangha. Initially a wandering religious order, their resting places later developed into Buddhist monasteries.
Propagated throughout India as a creed of righteousness and non-violence by the great Mauryan king, Ashoka (272-232 BC), Buddhism spread through southern and eastern Asia. Two main branches developed, Theravada and Mahayana. However, in India itself, Buddhism had virtually died out by the 13th century AD.
The nature of Buddhism
Buddhist teachings (called dharma) are distinctive because the Buddha taught that there is no permanent 'self'. Indeed, Buddhist teachings stress that nothing at all exists permanently - there is only perpetual change. Family, friends, possessions, even our own mind and body - all the things cherished as 'me' or 'mine' - are subject to perpetual change and decay. Yet people become mentally and emotionally attached to them as if they were permanent, so when any of them changes - for instance if someone dies - people suffer. Even moments of happiness are unsatisfactory, because they never last.
The Buddha taught that since impermanence is an unalterable fact of life, we can be truly happy only by becoming detached from the delusive notions of 'me' and 'mine'. Such detachment may be achieved through techniques of meditation.
Buddhism shares with Hinduism the concepts of samsara, an eternal cycle of death and rebirth, and karma, the idea that individuals suffer the effects of past actions.
Theravada Buddhism
Theravada ('Teaching of the Elders') is found mainly in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, and other countries of Southeast Asia. Theravadins view Gautama as a human being who achieved nirvana after many lifetimes of moral and spiritual development (inspiring tales of the Buddha's previous human and animal lives are a favorite method of teaching about Buddhism). To imitate the Buddha by becoming a monk is the best way to attain enlightenment.
A Theravadin monk follows a strict discipline, eating only donated food, remaining celibate, and not harming living beings. The monastic routine helps monks forget worldly concerns, so enabling them to concentrate on Buddhist teachings and to control the mind through meditation.
Monasteries depend entirely on the goodwill of the wider community. People give generously to the monastery, believing that such acts of merit will help them gain a better rebirth, perhaps become a monk in a future life. In return, lay people receive spiritual guidance from the monks and emulate them by following some of the rules of the Buddhist life.
Lay Buddhists pray to local gods and spirits for mundane benefits such as a good harvest - for although gods, like people, are impermanent, they may still be able to help.
Theravada Buddhist festivals vary from country to country, but typically celebrate the Buddha's birth and enlightenment and important events in the history of Buddhism in that country.
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
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Buddhism (page 2)
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Prayer Wheels from Nepal. Each turning of the decorated wheel is the equivalent of the recitation of a mantra (sacred syllable or verse).
@ * Buddhism (2 fo 3)
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana ('Great Vehicle') is a strand of Buddhism originating in India which spread to China, Korea, Japan and Tibet. According to Mahayana scriptures, the Buddha is not Gautama but an eternal, formless, cosmic principle, constantly acting to liberate us from suffering existence. The eternal Buddha uses wise and compassionate 'skillful means' (such as appearing in human form as the Buddha Gautama) if this will help deluded beings out of the cycle of rebirth. Mahayanists recognize several Buddhas and many bodhisattvas ('enlightenment- beings'), near-Buddhas who have delayed entering final nirvana to help all beings attain enlightenment.
Underlying Mahayana Buddhism are two important religious concepts. One is the idea of emptiness - that nothing at all has any permanent substance; even Buddhist doctrines are 'empty' and one should not become attached to them. The other is 'mind-only', meaning that the world we experience is a product of the mind, like a dream. The task of the Buddhist is to 'awaken' from the dream of existence.
Mahayana takes several forms. In Pure Land, by visualizing the Buddha Amida's beautiful form or chanting his name, a devotee is assured of rebirth in Amida's 'Land of bliss', where conditions are better for attaining final nirvana.
Zen ('meditation') Buddhism emphasizes the hard discipline of silent meditation, with unusual methods such as shouting and slapping used sometimes by Zen masters to shock the monk's mind into 'awakening'. Japanese Zen profoundly influenced the martial arts and the tea ceremony.
Esoteric, Tantric or 'Diamond' Buddhism became popular in Tibet and Japan. It holds that enlightenment is fully present within the disciple and with the correct spiritual technique passed on privately by a master, enlightenment can be had here and now.
Nichiren Buddhism, named after a 13th-century Japanese monk, contains esoteric elements such as a mantra, a repeated phrase with special power.
Festivals in Mahayana countries vary according to the tradition and are often a blend of Buddhism and other religions. There are numerous Mahayana cults focusing on different Buddhas and bodhisattvas to whom people pray for help with problems. In Japan, Buddhist priests are mainly responsible for funeral and memorial services for the ancestors.
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
Encyclopedia
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Buddhism (page 3)
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At a Buddhist temple shrine a woman offers a prayer.
Buddhism (3 fo 3)
The contemporary relevance of Buddhism
Buddhism has now spread worldwide, with Buddhist centers in most Western countries, and Buddhists today are debating the future role and direction of Buddhism. Some hold that Buddhism necessarily involves withdrawing from the world and social involvement is contrary to the 'middle way'. Others feel that the Buddha's teaching provides a blueprint for a better society, and Buddhists should therefore engage in social-reform movements.
The appeal of Buddhism in modern industrial society may lie in its emphasis on individual well-being, its non-exploitative approach to life, and its inner-directed philosophy. A Buddhist would say that people are drawn to Buddhism in this life because they performed acts of merit in a previous life.
MEDITATION
The following instructions are condensed from the zazen (sitting meditation) instructions of Zen master Dogen (1200-53 AD). A session of zazen may last half an hour or longer.
Find a quiet room.
Take food and drink only in moderation.
Do not think about good and evil or right and wrong.
Set all thoughts aside - give up even the idea of becoming enlightened.
Put a mat on the floor and a round cushion on the mat.
Sit in either the full or half cross-legged position. The full position is right foot on left thigh, left foot on right thigh. The half position is left foot on right thigh.
Clothing should be loose but neat.
Rest the back of your right hand on your left foot, and your left hand palm-up in the right hand, the tips of the thumbs just touching.
Sit straight upright without leaning. Line up ears and shoulders, nose and navel.
Keep your lips and teeth closed and your tongue against the roof of your mouth. Keep your eyes always open, and breathe regularly through the nose. When you have arranged yourself like this, take a deep breath, sway to right and left and then sit firmly like a rock.
As thoughts and feelings arise just accept them and let them pass naturally.
After meditating, get up calmly without sudden movements.
With practice, you will forget all attachments, and pure concentration will arise spontaneously. This is the basis of meditation, and meditation is the gateway of peace and bliss.
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
Buddhists believe that Gautama's teaching can be expressed succinctly in the Four Noble Truths:
1. To exist is to suffer.
2. Suffering is caused by attachment to impermanent things.
3. Suffering ceases once attachment ceases.
4. There is a 'Way' to end suffering.
This 'Way' varies with different kinds of Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhists rely on the power of Amida to help them. Zen Buddhists rely on meditation. Theravadin Buddhists have a formula that describes the Way - the Noble Eightfold Path :
1. Perfect understanding or knowledge.
2. Perfect attitude or resolve.
3. Perfect speech.
4. Perfect action.
5. Perfect occupation or living.
6. Perfect effort.
7. Perfect mindfulness.
8. Perfect composure or meditation.
Some Buddhists believe that these 'perfections' can only be obtained by long meditation and by living a strictly moral life. Others believe that the Buddha helps those who turn to him for assistance, or that these perfections are complete and innate within all of us.
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* ASIAN ART
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Religions of China and Japan (page 1)
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The Hall of Annual Prayer, part of the Temple of Heaven, Beijing. The Temple of Heaven is a complex of several buildings, layed out in a geometrical pattern representing the belief that heaven is round and the Earth square.
Religions of China and Japan (1 of 3)
Chinese religion comprises a basic belief in the power of gods, fate, spirits and ancestors, and three great religions with separate origins: Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism), which originated in China between 500 and 300 BC, and Buddhism, which entered China about AD 100. In practice these religions are thoroughly blended in the rites and festivals of Chinese religion.
Buddhism is also important in Japan, where it takes three main forms: Zen and Pure Land, and Nichiren. Japan's oldest religion, however, is Shinto, which has always been the religion of the emperors. Many new religions have also emerged in Japan in the last hundred years. Some offer totally new teachings, while others aim to revitalize the practices and values of older traditions.
Confucianism
Confucianism is an approach to life and way of thinking based on the teachings of Kongfuzi (Confucius; 551-479 BC). Kongfuzi was a scholar-official who taught that man's duty and happiness lay in conforming to the 'Will of Heaven' - a supreme spiritual principle that is believed to regulate the course of events and relationships between people. When people live according to the Will of Heaven, society is stable and people are happy and prosperous. However, if people follow their selfish desires and contravene the Will of Heaven, conflicts and natural disasters occur, and the whole universe becomes disordered.
Kongfuzi himself is considered to represent the Confucian ideal of the 'noble man'. Gradually through diligent training and study ('self-cultivation'), he was able to remold his own character to conform to the Will of Heaven. Proper respect, family love, reciprocity among friends, benevolence to strangers and loyalty to the state are the five noble Confucian qualities to be cultivated.
Kongfuzi's teachings were developed by Mengzi (Mencius; 372-289 BC) and became the basis of Chinese ethics and behavior, in which there is an emphasis on the preservation of the family and the state, and the performance of proper rites for the ancestors.
Daoism (Taoism)
Dao or Tao ('the Way') is a word of deep significance in Chinese thought. It refers to the mystical power behind all events, the flow of events themselves, and the religious path one should follow. The central text of Daoism is the Dao de jing (Tao Te Ching), dating from the 4th century BC but traditionally ascribed to Lao Zi (Lao-tzu), a semi-legendary philosopher of the 6th century BC. Also dating from the 4th century BC are the writings of Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu). In these texts Dao is described as unfathomable and indescribable. Central to Daoist thought is the idea of Yin and Yang, which are complementary opposites, Yin being dark, feminine and negative, while Yang is light, masculine and positive. The interplay of Yin and Yang maintains the harmony of the universe and affects all things. A blend of Daoist and Confucian thought is the Book of Changes (Yijing or I Ching), an oracular work that claims to predict the future from chance events, such as throwing sticks in a pattern.
Unlike Confucianism, Daoism advocates spontaneity and naturalness, abandoning oneself to the current of the Dao. Everything, good or bad, is the sublime operation of the Dao and should not be interfered with. Daoists naturally tended to solitude, meditation and simple living as do Buddhists. Their techniques of quiet contemplation were similar to Buddhist meditation.
Oneness with the Dao was believed to confer immortality, and Daoist alchemy originated as an attempt to find an elixir that would transmute the perishable self into an Immortal. Though seemingly opposed to Confucianism in its advocacy of 'non-action', Daoists shared the Confucian aim of a harmonious existence, and most Chinese combine Daoism and Confucianism in their way of thinking.
* ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* BUDDHISM
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Religions of China and Japan (page 2)
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Chinese screen portraying the Eight Immortals of Daoist mythology (bottom row) and mythological scenes (upper row). The Eight Immortals were a group of holy Daoists who had earned the right to live forever.
Religions of China and Japan (2 of 3)
Chinese religion in practice
Chinese festivals follow the cycle of the agricultural year and reflect concern for ancestors, health and prosperity. The Daoist rite of cosmic renewal (jiao) is carried out in early winter, and the Ch'ing Ming ('clear and bright') festival in the spring involves repairing ancestors' graves and offering food and paper 'spirit' money to the souls of the ancestors. Daoist and Buddhist priests as well as shamans (intermediaries between this world and the spirit world) assist in these festivals and in the rituals marking events in the life cycle, such as birth, marriage and death.
Rural people in mainland (Communist) China tend to be more religious than Chinese living in capitalist countries such as Hong Kong and Taiwan, but practicing any religion has been difficult in China since Marxism became the official belief system in 1949. A more liberal policy towards religion emerged in the late 1970s, but Chinese rulers throughout history have suppressed religions that do not support the government.
Shinto
Shinto ('the Sacred Way') is the native religion of Japan. Shinto existed in Japan long before the introduction of writing from China (5th century AD), but its earliest texts date from the 8th century. These texts include semi-mythological histories of Japan, tracing the line of emperors back to Amaterasu, the Sun goddess, so bestowing divine status on the imperial line.
Adherents of Shinto seek vitality, growth and prosperity through the worship of kami ('deity' or 'sacred energy'). The many Japanese gods are described as kami, and kami may also be found in sacred trees, rocks, waterfalls, mountains, and in the emperor and other outstanding individuals.
Shinto shrines throughout Japan house the kami of the locality. Shinto priests perform rituals of purification and renewal, and during festivals the kami is ceremonially carried through the streets in a mikoshi or portable shrine and entertained with a ceremony or a strenuous contest among the young men.
Shinto coexisted peacefully with other religions in Japan until the 1870s, when the modernizing government suppressed other religions and adapted Shinto teachings for government propaganda. Up to the Japanese defeat at the end of World War II, State Shinto taught that a citizen's religious duty was obedience to the divine emperor. In 1946 Emperor Hirohito renounced all claims to divinity, and the new postwar constitution safeguards religious freedom and prohibits any association between religion and state.
* ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* BUDDHISM
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Religions of China and Japan (page 3)
ftsTitle
Shinto priests in a ritual dance.
Religions of China and Japan (3 of 3)
Modern Japanese religions
With freedom of religion, many new religions appeared in postwar Japan, while others, suppressed before the war, expanded rapidly.
Some so-called 'new' religions actually began in the 19th century but had been restricted until 1945. The new religions are usually lay movements based on the personality and teaching of a founder, who may be a female shaman. Founders may reveal new truths about the meaning of life, or may simply renew people's faith in more traditional teachings. Some new religions offer magical solutions to difficulties, while others encourage positive thinking as the solution to life's problems.
Several new religions teach that family problems are caused by selfishness and by neglect of the spirits of the family ancestors, who make their anger felt by disrupting life. Religious rites are prescribed to pacify the ancestors and thus solve the problem. These new Japanese religions are continuing ideas and practices dating back to the earliest known forms of Chinese religion.
MODERN JAPANESE BUDDHISM
Nichiren (AD 1222-82) was a Japanese monk who preached faith in the Lotus Sutra, a major scripture of Mahayana Buddhism. Unusually for a Buddhist, Nichiren violently criticized all other forms of Buddhism as heresy.
Civil war, famine and disease were threatening Japan in Nichiren's time. He believed these calamities were due to people's lack of faith in the Lotus Sutra, for the sutra warns those who scorn it that they will suffer.
Though Nichiren failed to convert all Japan to his cause, his form of Buddhism eventually became very popular in Japan. One group of followers was called Nichiren Shoshu (the 'True Nichiren Sect').
Nichiren Buddhists chant the Japanese title of the Lotus Sutra, 'Namu-myo-ho-renge-kyo'. Nichiren taught that this chanting has the power to make one enlightened, by awakening one's already-present Buddha-nature.
Soka Gakkai ('The Society for the Creation of Value') was founded in the 1930s by Makiguchi Tsunesaburo, a schoolmaster who intended to combine Nichiren Buddhist practice with his own progressive educational theories. Although the movement was suppressed and Makiguchi died in prison during World War II, his successors Toda Josei and Ikeda Daisaku built up Soka Gakkai membership in the 1960s to approximately 10 million members - the most successful lay religious movement in Japan.
Soka Gakkai attracted converts by promising healing, business success and happiness, and in the 1970s the movement began to spread to other countries under the name Nichiren Shoshu. Many people - including pop stars and business and professional people - have been attracted to this accessible form of Buddhism. It teaches that chanting can bring anything one desires, from a new job to a Rolls Royce. People who chant for material goods, however, discover that having everything one desires is not the same as being happy. They begin to study the deeper meaning of Buddhism taught by Nichiren.
Despite its rapid growth since 1945, Soka Gakkai points out that it is not a 'new' religion but a lay movement attached to the 'True Nichiren Sect', and that it regards Nichiren himself as the Buddha for the present age.
* ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* BUDDHISM
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
Outline
Encyclopedia
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Judaism (page 1)
ftsTitle
An Orthodox Jew blows the Shofar in front of the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem. The instrument, made from a ram's horn, is used during the religious ceremonies marking the festival of Rosh Hashana. In biblical times it sounded the Sabbath, announced the New Moon, and proclaimed the anointing of a new king.
Judaism (1 of 3)
The biblical account of the origin of the Jewish religion traces its history back to the revolt by Abraham against the idol-worship of his native Mesopotamia (now Iraq), when he smashed his father's idols and fled to Canaan (present-day Israel). His fundamental belief in one God is enshrined in God's covenant 'with you and your descendants, to be a God to you and your descendants after you' (Genesis 17:7).
When Canaan was struck by famine, Abraham's grandson Jacob (who was renamed Israel by an angel) was forced to take his twelve sons to find food in Egypt, where they were enslaved. God's promise to Abraham to make his descendants into a nation and to give them the land of Canaan in perpetuity was fulfilled when the twelve tribes of Israel, the descendants of Jacob's sons, were led out of Egypt by Moses (c. 1300 BC). During their 40-year journey to the Promised Land, the Ten Commandments were revealed to Moses by God on Mount Sinai, along with the foundations of the legal and moral system of the Jewish religion.
The Written Law and the Oral Law
Orthodox Judaism regards all religious authority as deriving from this revelation, as embodied in the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew bible. The Jewish bible (known to Christians as the Old Testament) also contains the historical books of the Prophets, and the 'Writings' which include such poetical and ethical books as Psalms and Proverbs. The word 'Torah' literally means 'instruction' or 'law', and the term is also used to refer to the 613 commandments that tradition identifies in the Five Books of Moses, and to the whole body of social and religious law developed around them. Tradition holds that an Oral Law containing the key to the interpretation of the Written Law was revealed to Moses together with it. After the destruction of the Jewish state by the Romans in AD 70, this was codified as the Mishna, whose 63 'Tractates' are grouped into six 'Orders' dealing with agricultural law (in the land of Israel), sabbaths and festivals, family law, damages, temple ritual and dietary laws, and laws of purity.
During the following centuries debate amongst the Rabbis continued, and much of this is recorded in the Gemara. The Talmud, the great encyclopedia of Jewish teaching, consists of the interwoven texts of the Mishna and Gemara, usually printed with later commentaries around the page.
Beliefs
The Jewish religion is based on the belief in one God, Creator and Lord of the Universe, whose special relationship with the Jewish people consists in their undertaking to keep God's laws faithfully. Although Judaism expects non-Jews to observe certain basic ethical laws, it does not regard Jewish ritual as obligatory and does not seek converts. In fact, God promises the righteous of all people a place in the world to come, and the eventual re-establishment of the royal house of David; the Messiah (meaning 'anointed') will inaugurate an age of universal peace and security.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* CHRISTIANITY: BELIEF AND ACTION
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Judaism (page 2)
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The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem is a traditional site of pilgrimage and prayer.
Judaism (2 of 3)
Ritual and worship
Jewish law lays down a complex set of laws of kashrut, which distinguishes permitted (kosher or kasher) from prohibited (treifa) foods. Only mammals that have both cloven hoofs and chew the cud, such as cows and sheep, are permitted as food, and then they must be killed by a skilled shochet in a way that minimizes pain to the animal and drains as much blood as possible. Fish must have fins and scales (so that eels and sturgeon are forbidden), and shellfish and birds of prey are prohibited. In addition, milk and meat and their derivatives must be strictly separated and must not be cooked or prepared together, nor eaten at the same meal.
The Jewish day starts at sunset, and the week on Sunday, so that Shabbat, the day of rest ordained by the Torah, is observed from dusk on Friday to nightfall on Saturday. This day of rest derives from the account of the creation in the Bible, where God rested on the seventh day. During Shabbat, productive work and kindling fire are prohibited; the prohibitions include carrying, writing, cooking and traveling (except a limited distance on foot).
Synagogues were first built to serve as temporary places of worship after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC, but although the Jews did rebuild the Temple, the practice of local houses of prayer continued. However, the second Temple was also destroyed, this time by the Romans, and never rebuilt, and to this day the synagogue service is modeled upon, and refers to, the Temple service. The central role of the synagogue in Jewish religious life is attested by its Hebrew names, which translate as 'house of meeting' and 'house of study', as well as 'house of prayer'.
Although there are no requirements for a specially built building, and prayer can take place anywhere, many synagogues incorporate such ancient Jewish symbols as the Star of David, the Menorah (the seven-branched Temple candlestick), and the two tablets containing the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20) in their decoration. The congregation usually faces the Ark, a cupboard containing the Torah scrolls, which are handwritten on parchment by a specially trained scribe. Above the Ark, which is usually in the wall facing Jerusalem, a light is kept burning as a sign of God's eternal presence.
Services are held in the evening, morning, and afternoon. Each service has at its center a silent prayer, which is recited standing and facing Jerusalem. Morning and evening prayers also contain the Shema, the central declaration of Jewish faith, beginning 'Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God; the Lord is One' (Deuteronomy, 5), which is also the last rite of a Jew on his deathbed.
For a formal service to take place, a minyan or quorum of ten men is required; otherwise the Torah is not read and certain prayers cannot be said, including the Kaddish, a declaration of faith recited by mourners during the year after their bereavement. Any of the minyan may lead the prayers and read the Torah, not only the rabbi, whose main function is as teacher and interpreter of the Law.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* CHRISTIANITY: BELIEF AND ACTION
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Wailing Wall in Jerusalem
**++*
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Judaism (page 3)
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The menora, a multi-branched Jewish candlestick, is lit during the festival of Chanukah (Hanukkah). It is an imitation of the seven-branched golden candelabrum of the Tabernacle. Today the menora is a powerful symbol of Judaism.
Judaism (3 of 3)
Rites of passage
Birth. As a sign of the covenant between God and the Jews, the Torah lays down that every baby boy must be circumcised. The service is performed by a specially trained person, a mohel, on the eighth day after birth. Girls are named by their father in the synagogue.
Bar mitzvah. When a Jewish boy is 13 years old, he is regarded as being old enough to take responsibility for himself and for his observance of the Law. He is then 'bar mitzvah' (Hebrew for 'son of the commandment'), an adult in religious terms. He can then take an active part in services, and be counted in the minyan. One of the privileges of a Jewish man is to be called to read a passage of the Torah, in Hebrew, in a synagogue service, and in many communities the first occasion when he can do this is made the pretext of a party. In Orthodox Judaism, girls celebrate their coming of age at 12, and in some congregations this is marked by a bat chayil ceremony. In Progressive synagogues girls may have a bat mitzvah ('daughter of the commandment') ceremony at the age of 13.
Marriage. A Jewish marriage ceremony takes place under a canopy, the chuppah,and can be held anywhere, but is usually held in a synagogue or out of doors. After the bridegroom places a ring on the bride's forefinger, the ketubah or marriage contract is read out, and seven blessings are recited. At the end of the ceremony, the bridegroom breaks a glass underfoot, recalling the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. In Orthodox circles, the celebrations continue for a week, with the seven blessings repeated each night.
Death. Jewish law requires that a body must be buried in consecrated ground as soon as possible after death. It is first washed, anointed with spices, wrapped in a white sheet, and placed in a plain wooden coffin. Orthodox Jews regard cremation as a denial of belief in bodily resurrection. At the funeral, mourners tear their clothes, and for the next year they recite Kaddish during every synagogue service; Kaddish is also recited annually on the anniversary of death.
Jewish traditions and sects
For the Orthodox Jew, all authority derives from the divine will as expressed in the Torah and interpreted in the rabbinic tradition; the main role for human reason is in working out the precise details of that law. Ritual observance and the obligation to study are not thought of as different from ethical behavior. Nonetheless, there are diverse traditions within Orthodox Judaism: the Ashkenazi tradition developed in the communities of Germany and Poland; while the Sephardic tradition is traced back to the Jews who lived in the lands of the Near East and Mediterranean (particularly Spain) under Muslim rule in and before the Middle Ages. When the Sephardic Jews of Spain and Portugal were expelled in 1492 they settled in various countries, but have preserved different traditions from the Jews of northern Europe. The Hassidic sects of eastern Europe and some of the Oriental and North African communities also evolved their own rites. These groups, however, recognize each other's legitimacy in so far as they subscribe to the traditional concept of divine authority.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries various trends in Europe and America moved away from traditional or Orthodox observance, giving rise to Reform, Liberal, Conservative, Reconstructionist and other forms of Judaism. They reject the divinity of the Torah and rabbinic authority, and believe, to varying degrees, that Jewish practice must adapt to changing circumstances. They have introduced changes such as holding services partly in the vernacular (rather than Hebrew).
EJB
THE THIRTEEN PRINCIPLES OF FAITH
The best known codification of the beliefs of Orthodox Judaism is the Thirteen Principles of Faith by the Spanish court physician and philosopher, Rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). Each of the first five Principles begins 'I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name. . . ':
1. . . . creates and guides all creatures; and
that He alone made, makes, and will
make everything.
2. . . . is unique and nothing is unique like
Him in any way; and that He alone was,
is and will be our God.
3. . . . is not a body, and is not affected by
physical events; and nothing is at all
similar to Him.
4. . . . is the first and the last.
5. . . . is the only being to whom it is
proper to pray, and there is none other
to whom it is proper to pray.
Each of the remaining Principles begins 'I believe with complete faith. . . ':
6. . . . that all the words of the Prophets
are true.
7. . . . that the prophecy of Moses our
Teacher, may he rest in peace, was true,
and he was the greatest of the Prophets,
both those who preceded him and those
who followed him.
8. . . . that all the Torah now in our hands is
that which was given to Moses our
Teacher, may he rest in peace.
9. . . . that this Torah will not be
exchanged, nor will there be another
Torah from the Creator, blessed be His
name.
10. . . . that the Creator, blessed be His
name, knows all the deeds of mankind,
and all their thoughts, as it says 'He
forms their hearts together; He
understands all their deeds'.
11. . . . that the Creator, blessed be His
name, bestows good on those who
observe His commandments and
punishes those who transgress His
commandments.
12. . . . in the coming of the Messiah; and
even though he linger, nevertheless I
wait every day for him to come.
13. . . . that there will be a resurrection of
the dead at such time as is the will of the
Creator, blessed be His name and
exalted be his mention forever and for
all eternity.
MAJOR JEWISH FESTIVALS
The normal Jewish year consists of 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days. An extra month is added to 7 years of every 19-year cycle to bring the calendar back in time with the solar year.
The Jewish months are as follows: Nisan (March-April), Iyyar (April-May), Sivan (May-June), Tammuz (June-July), Av (July-August), Ellul (August-September), Tishri (September-October), Cheshvan (October-November), Kislev (November-December), Tevet (December-January), Shevat (January-February), Adar (February-March).
PESACH (Passover), 15-22 Nisan. Formal meal to commemorate Exodus from Egypt; also originally thanksgiving for barley harvest. No leaven eaten.
SHAVUOT (Pentecost), 6-7 Sivan. Commemorates giving of Torah; also originally thanksgiving for wheat harvest.
FAST OF AV, 9 Av. 24-hour fast to commemorate destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC and by the Romans in AD 70.
ROSH HASHANA, 1-2 Tishri. New Year; commemorates 'Birthday of the World'. White worn for repentance, and ram's horn blown to commemorate Abraham's covenant with God.
YOM KIPPUR, 10 Tishri. Day of Atonement, marked by 24 hours of fasting and prayer for forgiveness of past sins.
SUKKOT (Tabernacles), 15-22 Tishri. The 40 years of wandering in the desert are commemorated by eating and sleeping in huts roofed with branches. Also originally thanksgiving for harvest.
SIMCHAT TORAH, 22-23 Tishri. Marks completion of annual cycle of Torah readings and commencement of new cycle.
CHANUKAH or HANUKKAH(Festival of Lights), 25 Kislev-3 Tevet. Candles are lit in a nine-branched Menorah or Chanukiah to commemorate rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem by Judas Maccabeus in 165 BC.
TU B'SHEVAT, 15 Shevat. Trees planted.
PURIM, 14 Adar. Readings of Book of Esther, giving of charity and sending of gifts all commemorate the deliverance of the Jews of Persia from destruction.
Two new dates are observed by many Jews: YOM HA'ATZMA'UT (5 lyyar) celebrates the establishment of the State of Israel, and YOM HASHOAH (27 Nisan) is a memorial for the 6 million Jews who died in the Nazi Holocaust.
The altar at its most basic. Even the simplest rock can be used as a site of ritual in many religions. In Christianity, the altar has a central role in the Eucharist, the sacrament that commemorates the Last Supper.
Christianity: Belief and Practice (1 of 3)
The Western calendar, shaped and determined by Christianity, sees the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, known as the Christ, as the turning point of history. In dating the modern era from the supposed date of his birth (it seems likely Jesus was actually born c. 4 BC), Christianity was making a profound statement about the significance of Jesus Christ.
For Christians, the Jewish child born in Bethlehem was no ordinary human. He was and is, both human and divine, the Son of God. While it is possible to say that a historical person named Jesus lived between c. 4 BC and AD 30, it is only faith that can claim that he was the Christ, the anointed one of God, the long awaited Messiah of the Jews.
The nature of God
Christians believe that God is the creator of the universe and all life. They believe that Jesus Christ is the only Son of God, who has existed with God the Father from before time began. Jesus was incarnated (given human form), when by the power of the Holy Spirit, his human mother, Mary, gave birth to him. The purpose of his incarnation was to reconcile humanity with God, as human sinfulness had broken the relationship with God. Through Jesus' death upon the cross God broke the power of sin and evil, and through the rising of Jesus from the dead on the third day God showed the triumph of life over death, of good over evil, and gave the promise of everlasting life to those who believe in Jesus.
After his death, Jesus appeared to his disciples a number of times, and then ascended to heaven. He promised to send the Holy Spirit to guide and enlighten the Church. Christians believe that Jesus will return at the end of time to judge the world. The Trinity expresses the Christian belief that there are three persons who are of the same substance - God, namely the Father who created, the Son who revealed God's love and purpose to humanity and creation, and the Holy Spirit, through which God seeks to guide and instruct the world today.
The teachings of Jesus
What we know of Jesus' teachings and life is recorded in the Gospels and in several quotes and stories found in the other books of the New Testament. These were all written by Christians who believed Jesus to be in some way both human and divine. Our knowledge of Jesus therefore comes through the pens of believers. Jesus taught that God was like a father who cares for every person on Earth. He taught that through repentance and forgiveness, God calls all humanity to him in love and seeks for every individual to do his will on Earth. Jesus taught that through living as God wishes, the Kingdom of God - justice, love, mercy and peace - could come upon Earth, either in individual lives or possibly to the world as a whole. What we cannot be sure of is quite how Jesus understood his role. He certainly rejected the model of the Messiah that the Jews of his day had. They longed for a righteous warrior who would free them from Rome and give them their own country again. But whether Jesus understood himself to be divine is a hotly debated issue. He certainly talked of the kingdom to come - but not a political or military one, rather one established in people's hearts and minds.
The Church holds that through the twelve key disciples of Jesus, the apostles, authority on Earth was given to the Church, which is to be seen as the body of Christ on Earth. The Church is therefore held to be essential to salvation - to being freed from sin and to the possibility of everlasting life.
The Discussion of the Sacraments fresco by Raphael in the Vatican.
` B Christianity: Belief and Practice (2 of 3)
The Bible
The Jewish Bible is called the Old Testament by Christians, and the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Letters and Revelation are called the New Testament. In so doing, the Church shows that it considers itself to be the true heir of Israel, to whom the Old Testament or covenant was given. But Christians believe Israel failed to recognize Jesus as the fulfilment of the Old Testament, and so the special relationship with God enjoyed by Israel passed to the Church.
Some Christians believe the Bible is a factual, historical and scientific account of life on Earth, its purpose and meaning. Other Christians hold that it reveals, through story and myth, the nature of humanity's relationship with God and with one another. For both, the Bible plays a central role in helping to determine Christian responses to moral, social and spiritual issues.
The Bible the first Christians knew was the Jewish one, in which Christians see Jesus foretold. The Jewish Bible was known to the early Christians in two forms, the original Hebrew and the Greek translation known as the Septuagint. This was because Christianity started amongst Jews - Jesus appears to have had few non-Jewish (Gentile) followers during his life on Earth. Very soon, however, Christians were attracted from non-Jewish groups and they read the Jewish Bible in the common language of their time, Greek. The New Testament was entirely written in Greek, showing how the Gentile world became more important to the Church than the Jewish world. Jesus himself spoke Aramaic (a Semitic language), and a few words of this remain in the New Testament.
The earliest history of the Church is captured in the Acts of the Apostles, while the four Gospels portray the life of Jesus in different ways. The New Testament also contains letters from St Paul and others to the early churches, in which Christian theology and reflection on Jesus begins to develop. At the end of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, which envisages the end of the world and the Second Coming of Jesus. The early Church seems to have expected Jesus to return very soon and to establish God's rule on Earth. When this did not happen, this Second Coming became an event in the distant future, when all would be judged for their behavior and the just rule of God would come on Earth.
The Nativity - the birth of Jesus - by the 15th-century Flemish painter Robert Campin.
The Gospels recount how the Angel Gabriel announced to Mary that she was to conceive the Son of God by the Holy Spirit, and that, although married to Joseph, she remained a virgin. In both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, Mary is regarded as a mediator between God and man. (Musue des Beaux-Arts, Dijon/Explorer)
Christianity: Belief and Practice (3 of 3)
The Church and ritual
The life of the Church has been formed by both the Bible and by Christian teachings and doctrine. Through a dynamic interaction between Bible and tradition the Church has developed its teachings, beliefs and creeds as well as liturgies, sacraments and festivals. These impart to the believer the essence of the Christian faith and imbue the significant stages of life with Christian meaning and purpose. The following account draws primarily upon Roman Catholic and Anglican practices; there is in fact a wide divergence of belief and practice within the Christian faith.
There are two rites or sacraments that were instituted by Jesus himself, namely baptism and the eucharist. Other rites celebrated at times of grace or blessing include confirmation, marriage, ordination to the priesthood, confession, and extreme unction just before death.
The eucharist (or holy communion) - in which bread and wine is consecrated and offered to the congregation - is the central service of many Churches, because Jesus at the last Supper (just before the crucifixion) told his disciples to remember him when they broke bread and drank wine. There is a wide diversity of understanding of the role of the bread and the wine. In Roman Catholic theology it is believed that the bread and the wine become the body and blood of Christ - a process known as transubstantiation. In Protestant thought the term consubstantiation covers one understanding - that the body and blood of Christ are present in the bread and the wine. Protestant thought also has the idea that the bread and wine are simply a memorial to the blood and body of Christ.
Baptism (or christening) marks the acceptance of a new member into the Church, and involves sprinkling holy water on the head of the person concerned, or may, in some traditions, involve total immersion. The ritual recalls the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, and Jesus' own baptizing of his disciples.
Many Churches have professional clergy. These fall into two main types, priests and ministers. The role of the priest in, say, the Orthodox or Roman Catholic tradition is to act as an intermediary between God and the world. The priest has a formal, liturgical role that does not necessarily involve a pastoral dimension. In contrast, the minister in many Protestant Churches does not act as an intermediary, as each person is believed to be in direct communication with God, or capable of being so. The minister's role is to guide reflection on the Word of God and to help Christians in the daily conduct of their lives according to Christian principles. In such Churches there is a belief in the priesthood of all believers.
The term 'church' needs to be explored, for it has two distinct meanings. With a capital 'C', it is applied to the whole body of believers, as in the Church of England. It does not just mean the clergy, but all who profess Christ's name and belong to him through the Church. The second meaning, with a lower-case 'c', is the physical place of worship for the community of believers. Most churches have their sanctuary, where the altar is kept, and provide places for communal worship, reading of the Bible, preaching and administration of the eucharist and other sacraments such as baptism. In certain traditions the church faces towards Jerusalem.
Forms of Christianity
Christianity has three major forms: Roman Catholic with the pope as head of the Church; Orthodox, with the patriarch of Constantinople as the first amongst equals of the various patriarchs of the different Orthodox Churches such as the Russian Church; the Protestant movement, made up of main de-nominations such as the Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans, Baptists, United Churches and so forth, as well as the many smaller splinter Churches. Worldwide, Christianity has over 1500 million adherents, of which the majority are now to found in the Third World - Africa, Latin America and Asia.
ICOREC
MAJOR CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS
Of the Christian festivals, the following are the most significant - although every day of the year has its saints, and there are many minor festivals.
ADVENT and CHRISTMAS
Advent runs for some four or five weeks prior to 25 December (Christmas Day) and is a time of preparation for the coming of Jesus in the past, in the present and in the future. Christmas Day celebrates the birth of Jesus and is traditionally followed by the twelve days of Christmas, ending with Epiphany, which celebrates the visit of the wise men to the child Jesus.
LENT and EASTER
This is the major festival of the Church. For 40 days before Holy Week and Easter - a period known as Lent - Christians fast or go without certain foods to remind themselves of Jesus' 40 days in the wilderness and of the sufferings he endured on the cross. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which recalls Jesus' entry into Jerusalem when the people covered the road with palm leaves to celebrate his arrival. Good Friday - so called because it brought redemption to humanity - is the day Christians commemorate the death of Jesus upon the cross. Easter Sunday celebrates the rising from the tomb by Jesus and his first appearance to his disciples and friends.
ASCENSION DAY
Ascension Day comes 40 days after Easter and celebrates the ascension of Jesus into heaven - the last earthly appearance of Jesus.
PENTECOST
Whitsunday or Pentecost comes ten days later, and celebrates the gift of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples and the founding of the Church.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
* JUDAISM
* WORLD CHRISTIANITY
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* GOOD AND EVIL
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p476-1
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World Christianity (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Pope, leader of the Holy Catholic Church, leads a mass at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome on October 29, 1994.
z World Christianity (1 of 3)
In every form of Christianity the same scriptures are used, the God of Israel is worshipped, and Jesus Christ is seen as having ultimate significance. The differences in expression and forms of worship among Christians are immense, as Christianity has adapted to different cultures and historical circumstances. To understand this diversity it is necessary to consider how Christianity has spread.
The earliest Christians were all Jews, and the first Christian center was Jerusalem. The belief that Jesus was Israel's Messiah led to a rethinking of Israel's history and scripture. Many Gentiles (non-Jews) were attracted already to the monotheism of Judaism and found in Christianity a way that brought Jewish and Greek thought together. Crucially, the Christians decided that non-Jewish followers of Jesus should not become converts to Judaism. This meant that the new Christians (who were soon the majority) had a quite different lifestyle from the first followers of Jesus.
Greco-Roman Christianity
Christianity spread in all directions from Palestine, but most rapidly in the Roman Empire, where it had to adapt to Greek philosophy and popular (and later official) hostility. Though local forms of Christianity developed, a process of consensus produced statements of teaching regarded as catholic (universal) and orthodox (right thinking). The methods of Greek philosophical debate were employed to define and state Christian teaching. After 313 the Roman state began to favor Christianity and eventually made it the official religion.
The Emperors generally wanted religious uniformity and so 'catholic' and 'orthodox' formulations came to have state sanction. In the Empire's eastern provinces, Christians were thinking about Christ not only in terms of Greek philosophy, but also in terms of Syrian and Egyptian thought; and Christians outside the Empire were not always involved in the consultative process at all. Monophysitism and Nestorianism are names given to teachings about Christ rejected at Empire-based councils in the 5th century. The issues are complex, but the basic conflict was probably between mainstream Greco-Roman and non-Greek ways of thinking. At any rate, most Syriac and Coptic Christians formed Monophysite or Nestorian Churches, and Churches of these types spread in the Middle East and northeast Africa, across Central Asia, and over to southern India.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* JUDAISM
* CHRISTIANITY: BELIEF AND ACTION
* PHILOSOPHY
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World Christianity (page 2)
ftsTitle
Pope John Paul II on a visit to Mexico in 1990. The Pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Roman Catholics recognize the Pope as the lawful successor of St Peter, who was appointed head of the Church by Christ.
World Christianity (2 of 3)
Christianity and Europe
By 400, Christianity was established in Roman-Greek culture. After the collapse of Rome the Empire continued in the east at Constantinople until 1453, but its eastern provinces were gradually conquered by Muslims. In Central Asia, too, the Muslim advance drastically reduced the Christian presence. But by 1000 the majority of tribal peoples from Ireland to Russia had become Christian, some under Roman, some under Greek influence. Roman or Greek culture was added to tribal heritages to form new, distinct Christian civilizations in Western Europe and Russia.
The linguistic and cultural differences meant that Eastern and Western Christians increasingly grew apart. Western Christians used Latin and looked to Rome; Eastern Christians used Greek or Slavonic languages and looked to Constantinople. Despite various attempts at reconciliation, the breach between Eastern and Western Christianity had hardened by the 11th century.
Christianity expands again
From the late 15th century, Western Europeans learned of new routes and hitherto unknown lands; and, from the 16th century, Russia explored its vast Asian hinterland. Both thought it a duty to bring Christianity to their new neighbors.
In Spanish America, Christianity was enforced by conquest. In most other areas, conquest was out of the question. The result was missionary endeavor on the part of the Roman Catholic Church in Africa and Asia from the 16th century. Orthodox missions in Siberia and Protestant missions else where developed in earnest in the 18th century. Though missions sometimes profited from imperial ventures (as in the Treaty ports in China), many preceded the major imperial expansions of the late 19th century.
Until the 20th century the success of the missions appeared modest. In 1900, about 83% of the world's professing Christians lived in Europe or North America. Today between 50% and 60% live in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania, and the proportion is rising - in Africa alone there are now 224 million Christians, where there were only 10 million in 1900. In the West, especially in Europe, Christian belief has declined, making Christianity increasingly a religion of the southern continents.
The Eastern Churches
Most of the Churches called Orthodox derived from the ancient Greek Christianity of the Eastern Mediterranean. The direct link with Churches founded by apostles and the memory of a Christian Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire) that lasted until 1453 heighten the importance of tradition as the guide of the Church. Tradition includes the scriptures, the early Church councils and the writings of the Church Fathers (the early medieval writers on Christian doctrine), the liturgy and the veneration of holy pictures (icons). The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is the senior figure, but each autonomous Church (the Russian being much the largest) has its own patriarch and is self-governing. Apart from Russia, Orthodox Christianity is particularly important in the Balkans, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Bulgaria and parts of Yugoslavia.
The Oriental Churches
The Oriental Churches include the surviving parts of the ancient Monophysite and Nestorian Churches. The Monophysite Churches include the Coptic Church of Egypt - one of the earliest Churches; the Ethiopian Church founded in the 4th century; the Syrian Church - again one of the earliest, and which includes the Thomarists of India; and the Armenians - who became the first nation to officially adopt Christianity, at the end of the 3rd century.
The Nestorian Church at one time covered most of Persia (modern Iran), and had reached into China by the 7th century. However, with the rise of Islam, the Nestorian Church was largely extinguished.
Except in Ethiopia and India, other Churches exist primarily within Muslim states, where they are tolerated, although evangelization is usually not permitted. The Ethiopian Church underwent a difficult period with the Marxist regime in Ethiopia (1976-91), but has held its place as the major humanitarian agency in the famine-struck country.
The ancient Church of South India has a complex history, with both Monophysite and Nestorian (as well as Catholic and Protestant) influences.
The Roman Catholic Church
Rome was the only Western Church founded by an apostle (St Peter). From Ireland to the Carpathians, Christians came to acknowledge the bishop of Rome as pope (from Vulgar Latin papa,'father'), and used Latin for worship, scripture-reading and theology. In the 16th century most of northern Europe broke the link with Rome to form re formed Protestant Churches. This division of Western Christianity led to the terms 'Protestant' for these northern Churches and 'Roman Catholic' (though to its members it was simply 'the Church') for Latin Christianity.
Supreme in southern Europe, Catholic Christianity was extended to the Americas and to parts of Asia and Africa. Missions in the 19th and 20th centuries extended it further, and the Roman Catholic Church today is found worldwide, forming the largest single Christian body. It has a strong central authority based on the idea of the Church as the possessor and interpreter of the tradition of Christ. Since the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) Latin has for most purposes given way to local languages. Some smaller non-Latin Churches, such as the Ukrainian Church and the Lebanese Maronites, accept the leadership of the pope. These are known as 'Uniate' Churches.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* JUDAISM
* CHRISTIANITY: BELIEF AND ACTION
* PHILOSOPHY
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World Christianity (page 3)
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Mormon statue monument to the early pioneers of Salt Lake City. Mormons, or members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, are Christians but also accept the 19th-century Book of Mormon as part of their scriptures. The Mormon founder, John Smith, claimed divine revelations.
World Christianity (3 of 3)
The Protestant Churches
In 16th-century Europe, movements to reform the Church accompanied fresh interpretations of the Bible and the use of everyday language in place of Latin. These movements rejected Roman authority and established reformed national forms of Christianity in the various states of northern Europe, such as Lutheranism in Sweden and parts of Germany, Calvinism in Geneva and Scotland, and Anglicanism in England. This process is known as the Reformation. The majority Protestant movement aimed to reform the Church within each state while keeping the idea that the Church embraced the whole community. The Radical (or Anabaptist) movement insisted that the Church consisted solely of those who made a commitment to Christ, and broke the link with the state. A minority in Europe, this movement produced the dominant Christian forms in North America.
The 18th century saw movements for spiritual renewal in Protestant countries - Pietism in Germany and the Evangelical Revival in Britain, North America and elsewhere. These brought the majority and radical Protestant streams closer together. European emigration brought all the Protestant traditions to America, including the Pietist and Evangelical movements. They took new life and new shapes in a huge community - largely Christian, but multi-ethnic and with no national Church. Some completely new forms of Christianity also arose - notably Pentecostalism, with its stress on gifts of tongues and healing. Today the American religious scene is characterized by a large number of de nominations.
New expressions of Christianity
New expressions of Christianity are appearing in the southern continents as Christians there meet situations not encountered in the West. There are some signs that a tradition of Christianity is developing that may be as distinctively African as Catholicism and Protestantism have been Western, in that African In dependent Churches reflect African ways of worship and address issues of African life. In India, united Churches of South India and North India have developed, and these replace the denominational Churches of Western origin. Latin America has produced new developments such as 'liberation theology' and 'basic Christian communities' (radical movements within the Roman Catholic Church that work for social justice), and a surge of Pentecostalist Christianity.
Christianity today
One characteristic of Christianity today is the increased understanding and cooperation both between Christians in different parts of the world and between Christians of different backgrounds and traditions. The word ecumenical is used to describe such spirit and action. Though sometimes used in a narrower sense to refer to the movement associated with the World Council of Churches (founded in 1948), the word simply means 'worldwide' (from the Greek oikumene, 'inhabited world'). It is a sign that Christianity is a world faith to a greater extent than ever before, and that in itself means diversity.
In the 1990s female ordination became a major issue in Anglican Churches, some of which - including those in the USA and New Zealand - already have women priests, but the decision of the Church of England to admit women to the priest hood (1992) threatened a secession of traditionalists to Roman Catholicism.
MARGINAL GROUPS
Various movements related to Christianity stand apart from the forms mentioned by not giving ultimate significance to Christ. Western examples include some forms of Unitarianism (which deny Christ's divinity); the Watchtower Movement or Jehovah's Witnesses (who also deny Christ's divinity, and condemn all Churches); Mormonism and Christian Science (which claim their own sources of knowledge supplementary to the Scriptures). The last three are of 19th-century American origin.
The Great Mosque in Mecca, the Haram, surrounds the cube-shaped building called the Kaaba, the most sacred Islamic shrine.
Islam (1 of 4)
Islam is an Arabic word meaning 'submission'. Muslims are those who submit themselves to Allah - whom they regard as the one true God - by accepting the faith of Islam. The sacred book of Islam is the Qur'an (Koran), the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Five basic beliefs are central in Islam. These are the Articles of Faith and consist of belief in the oneness of God; the holy books he has revealed for the guidance of humanity; the prophets; the angels; and the hereafter.
The founder of Islam was the Prophet Muhammad. Born around AD 570 at Mecca in western Arabia, Muhammad received his call to prophethood when he was about 40 years old. He claimed that he had been sent to bring good news and to warn his people against idolatry, so that they might turn to the true God. Those who believed and obeyed the laws in the Qur'an would be rewarded in paradise, whereas those who rejected the message would be punished in hell.
Gradually opposition built up against Muhammad, especially among the rich merchant class, and he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina, a city 450 km (280 mi) to the north of Mecca.This migration is known as the Hijra and it took place in July 622, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar. At Medina, Muhammad became the head of a new religious community. He fought his Meccan opponents until his final conquest of Mecca in 630. He died in 632, having spread the message of Islam through much of Arabia.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* ISLAMIC ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Great Mosque in Mecca, the Haram
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Islam (page 2)
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Muslims at prayer in front of the Al-Kouds mosque, Palestine. Prayer is one of the five essential religious duties for Muslims to develop the spirit of submission to God.
Islam (2 of 4)
God, revelation and the Qur'an
Muslims insist on God's oneness and believe that no one and nothing should be worshipped alongside him. God is seen as the creator, the giver and taker of life, present everywhere in the universe and quite unlike any other being. He is described by many 'beautiful names' such as All-Powerful, All-Seeing, All-Hearing, Merciful, Compassionate, Forgiving. From a Muslim viewpoint God can be known most reliably through his revelation of himself in the Qur'an.
According to Islamic doctrine, the Qur'an is the collection of God's revelations to the Prophet Muhammad through the medium of the angel Gabriel. Revealed in Arabic over 22 years from AD 610 to 632, it is seen not as an earthly-inspired book but as the exact words of God, taken from a heavenly tablet. It is regarded as a miracle and great care has been taken to preserve it without change.
Muslims maintain that in the Qur'an God speaks of his own nature, of his relationship with human beings, and of how they will be held accountable to him at the Last Judgment. Although the Qur'an refers directly to Muhammad and the early Islamic community, it offers moral guidance to people of all times and all races. In addition, earlier prophets - including Abraham, Moses and Jesus - are recognized.
Religious leaders
Prayers in the mosque are led by an imam. Any male Muslim can act as an imam, but there are usually professional imams attached to mosques and they may also preach, teach and conduct marriages and funerals. The word 'imam' can also be used to mean the leader of all the Muslims. After Muhammad's death, the Sunni Muslims used the word in this way, but no longer have such a leader. The Shiite sects have varying beliefs about the imam as head of the community, but stress the importance of his spiritual leadership.
Scholars of religion provide guidance for the community in matters of theology and the Holy Law. Among the Twelver Shiites the senior theologians, known in Iran as ayatollahs, exercise great authority in the absence of the Imam. The title of mullah, also used in Iran, is a general term for a Shiite religious scholar.
Sufism is the name given to the mystical movement in Islam. Sufi shaikhs provide leadership for their followers in the mystical brotherhoods, guiding the initiates on their spiritual journey. In some areas of the Islamic world, for example in parts of West Africa, they remain a powerful influence.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* ISLAMIC ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Islam (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. Like most mosques it has minarets (towers) for the muezzin to call muslims to worship five times each day. Although most mosques have lost the political functions they used to have they are still important social and educational as well as religious centers.
Islam (3 of 4)
The sects of Islam
The Sunnis, who form about 90% of Muslims, are known more fully as 'the People of the Sunna and Collectivity'. Their name derives from their claim to follow the sunna or 'trodden path' (the name given to the words and actions of Muhammad and his first four successors), and also from their claim to adhere to the ways of the 'collectivity' of Muslims.
The Shiite sects originated in a dispute as to who should head the Islamic community after the Prophet's death. Supporters of his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, became known as the Shiat Ali or 'Party of Ali'. All Shiites recognize lines of Ali's descendants as imams. They are divided into three main subsects.
The first of the Shiite subsects consists of the Zaidis, who differ little from Sunni Muslims, but recognize a line of imams possessing no supernatural qualities. The Zaidi imams ruled Yemen until their overthrow in 1962.
The majority of Shiites are Twelvers or Imamis. This subsect forms most of the population of Iran, with considerable numbers in Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan and India. They recognize twelve imams, the last of whom disappeared in AD 878 and is expected by them to return as the Mahdi, a Messiah-like figure who will usher in an age of justice before the end of the world. The Twelvers regard the imams as perfect and sinless, partaking of divine qualities through the emanation into them of the Divine Light. In modern times the title 'imam' has also been given to other major religious leaders of the Twelvers, such as Imam Khomeini of Iran.
The last main Shiite subsect is formed by the Ismailis, who recognize a continuing line of infallible imams descended from Ismail, the eldest son of the sixth Twelver imam. The doctrines of the Ismailis are strongly influenced by neoplatonic and Indian thought, introduced especially in their interpretation of the Qur'an, in which they saw inner truths different from the external meanings. The Fatimid caliphs of Egypt were Ismailis. Modern branches are the Khojas, led by the Aga Khan (mainly in India and East Africa), and the Bohras of India and Yemen.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* ISLAMIC ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
Encyclopedia
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Islam (page 4)
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An ornately decorated Qur'an (Koran) from the 14th century. It is traditionally forbidden in Islam to portray living figures, so Muslim calligraphers developed highly ornamental styles based on geometric shapes and plant motifs.
Islam (4 of 4)
Life under the Holy Law
Islamic law is called the Sharia, the 'high- way' along which God commands the Muslims to walk. The scope of the Sharia is wider than that of Western secular law and covers all aspects of life. Religious duties are specified in detailed regulations for performing prayer, pilgrimage, etc. Punishments are laid down for certain offenses, for example, the amputation of a hand for theft, 80 lashes for drinking alcohol. Family organization is determined by laws dealing with marriage, divorce, custody of children and inheritance.
Women and Islam
The status of women in Muslim countries is changing rapidly. A man is allowed up to four wives, but this is rare nowadays and most men have only one. Traditionally, a man can divorce his wife by saying three times that he intends to divorce her, but she cannot divorce him. However, reform in the law in some countries now allows a woman to divorce her husband in some circumstances - for example, if he takes another wife after writing in their marriage contract that she would be his only wife.
Some women wear strict Islamic dress covering all parts of the body, including face, hands and hair. Others allow just their face and hands to show, and some wear modest Western dress, keeping Islamic dress for attendance at the mosque and prayers at home. These variations can even be seen within one family. Many younger married women work, and some run their own companies or have attained senior positions in government.
THE PILLARS OF ISLAM
Certain essential religious duties, described as the 'Five Pillars', are intended to develop the spirit of submission to God. They are:
Profession of the faith. 'There is no god but God, and Muhammad is God's messenger' is the fundamental creed of Islam.
Prayer, the act of worship performed five times a day - at dawn, midday, mid-afternoon, sunset and before bed. After washing themselves, Muslims face in the direction of Mecca and pray communally at the mosque or individually in any place that is ritually clean, often using a prayer rug. Each prayer consists of a set number of 'bowings', for example, two at dawn, four at midday. The 'bowing' is composed of a prescribed succession of movements, in which the worshipper stands, bows, kneels with forehead to the ground, and sits back on the haunches. Recitations in Arabic, mostly words of praise and verses of the Qur'an, accompany each movement. Attendance at the mosque is not compulsory, but men are required to go to the special congregational prayers held every Friday at noon. For women, all attendance is optional. The mosque also has an educational role, and teaching ranges from advanced theology to religious instruction for children.
Almsgiving. An offering, known as zakat, is given by those Muslims with sufficient means as a yearly charitable donation.
Fasting. Muslims fast from shortly before sunrise until sunset every day during the Islamic month of Ramadan, the month in which they believe the Qur'an was first revealed. The person fasting may not eat, drink or smoke. However, there are several categories of people who are exempted from the Ramadan fast, including the elderly, the sick and children.
Pilgrimage to Mecca (the hajj ) is to be undertaken at least once in a lifetime by every Muslim who can afford it. The pilgrimage takes place every year in the Islamic month of Dhu'l-Hijja. The ceremonies begin at Mecca with the pilgrims walking seven times round the cube-shaped building called the Kaaba - for Muslims the most ancient house of worship of the One God. Other observances follow in Mecca and its vicinity, ending with the Great Feast, when goats, sheep and camels are sacrificed.
Jihad is sometimes regarded as another pillar of the faith. It means 'striving' and is commonly used to describe the duty of waging 'holy wars' to spread Islam or to defend Islamic lands. It may also be used to mean the struggle for spiritual improvement.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* SACRED PLACES AND RITUALS
* ISLAMIC ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Worship, Prayer and Pilgrimage (page 1)
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Jerusalem is one the most important
destinations of Christian pilgrimage as it was the site of Jesus' suffering and resurrection.
Worship, Prayer and Pilgrimage (1 of 1)
In religion the word worship (originally worth-ship) means the acknowledgment of the worth and position of the supreme being and of lesser divinities (or occasionally ancestors), and the giving to them of such veneration as is appropriate. More specifically, the word is often applied to the particular rites and ceremonies through which this acknowledgment is given expression. Thus one might talk of Jewish or Muslim worship to indicate the way in which followers of these religions actually demonstrate their veneration of the supreme being.
In this second sense, much of what is thus called worship might more accurately be referred to as ritual. Ritual refers to conscious and voluntary actions regularly carried out (usually in a stylized and symbolic way) to establish contact with, and give honor to, whoever (or whatever) is being worshipped.
Varieties of ritual
Different purposes are apparent in different kinds of ritual. Some, for example, are designed to bring about health and healing - the laying on of hands in some religions would be an example of this, as would various forms of exorcism to drive out evil spirits. Other rituals may aim at influencing God (or nature spirits) to change or improve aspects of nature. Thus in time of drought, many religions have rituals aimed at helping to bring about rain. Yet other rituals emphasize changes in social or biological status. Many religions have ceremonies around the time of puberty to mark the transition to adulthood: the Jewish bar mitzvah is one example of this, the rite of circumcision amongst many tribal peoples another.
Prayer
Although not always regarded as such, prayer is a form of ritual. Prayer may be defined broadly as a human attempt at communication with the divine, or with other spiritual beings. Across the religions, prayer takes many different forms. It can be personal or communal, spontaneous or formal, spoken or silent.
Where a religion stresses the transcendence (or separateness) of God, prayer is a means of bridging the gap between humanity and divinity; where the immanence (or 'presentness') of God is stressed prayer often serves to make the worshipper more aware of 'the God within'.
The purposes of verbal prayer include adoration (acknowledging the existence and attributes of the divine), thanksgiving (expressions of gratitude for divine favors), and petition (the making of particular requests to the divine).
In many religions there is a tradition of non-verbal prayer or meditation. In meditation - as, for example, in the Hindu and Buddhist tradition of yoga - the purpose of the exercise is union with the divine, sometimes called enlightenment, or, in the Christian mystical tradition, the beatific vision.
Across many religious traditions there are different aids to prayer. Rosaries (or prayer beads) are used in several religions to help remember a series of prayers; prayer wheels are used in Buddhism; and holy pictures of several sorts may aid concentration. In Roman Catholicism these may be of Jesus Christ or the saints, and in the Eastern Orthodox tradition take the particular form of icons. In Hinduism and Buddhism they often take the form of intricate geometric pictures known as mandalas. By contrast, Islam traditionally prohibits the making of images of any living creature.
Sacrifice
Sacrifice is the making of an offering or gift to a supernatural being, which often (though not always) involves the destruction of the object being offered. Almost anything can be offered as a sacrifice, although, since one of the purposes of sacrifice is to honor the deity, the object offered should usually be of value to the donor.
In some religions, human sacrifices have been made, for example amongst the Aztecs; more often animal or vegetable sacrifices are offered. These were common in earlier Judaism, but died out after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in AD 70. Partly for that reason, and partly because they saw the death of Christ as the ultimate sacrifice, the early Christians spiritualized sacrifice to mean the giving up for religious reasons of something otherwise desirable in life. In Islam, although the ritual slaughter of animals takes place as part of the pilgrimage to Mecca, it is not, technically speaking, sacrifice, which is seen more as the duty to give alms to the poor. Generally Buddhism has rejected physical sacrifice as a valid religious activity.
The purposes of sacrifice are diverse. Certainly it seems likely that the practice of sacrifice depends upon belief in a god and/or lesser divinities who can be influenced by human actions. In a sense sacrifice is a form of prayer, and several of its purposes mirror those of prayer. Thus a sacrifice may be carried out to praise, thank or petition the recipient. Praise sacrifices are comparatively rare; thanksgiving offerings are much more common. One of the most frequent forms of the latter are first-fruit offerings when the crops ripen - remnants of this can be seen in Christian harvest festivals, which are still held today even in industrialized areas. An additional purpose of sacrifice is expiation (sometimes also called atonement or propitiation). Such sacrifices are carried out to pay for some moral lapse or to appease the anger of the divinity. Some Christians would see the death of Jesus in this way - as a sacrificial payment for the sins of humanity.
Pilgrimage
Most religions have a tradition of pilgrimage - journeying to some holy place as a religious duty, and in order to obtain some spiritual or physical benefit.
Several elements are central to the idea of pilgrimage across religious traditions. The first is the journey itself, usually undertaken in groups, and producing a feeling of fellowship and solidarity. The second is the place to which the journey is made. This almost always has a special religious significance and is regarded as a place of power. It may be the birthplace or burial place of a founder or saint - for example, Christians make pilgrimages to Bethlehem and Jerusalem. It may be a place of special historical importance in the development of the religion, such as Mecca in Islam. Other pilgrimage destinations are places of particular spiritual power, such as the River Ganges in Hinduism, while others again may be sites associated with unusual manifestations, such as Lourdes in France, or, more recently, Medjugorje in Bosnia, where the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared.
A third element central to pilgrimage is the carrying out of some special religious duties or rituals at the place of pilgrimage itself. Thus at Mecca pilgrims process seven times around the Kaaba, and during the huge Hindu festival of Kumbha Mela (which in 1989 attracted 15 million participants) pilgrims wash ritually in the sacred waters of the Ganges.
Pilgrimages may be undertaken for several reasons: to obtain religious merit by personal hardship; to make amends for sins previously committed; or in obedience to specific religious demands - for example, all Muslims are expected to visit Mecca at least once in their lives. One of the most common purposes of pilgrimage is to seek healing at a place of spiritual power - as at Lourdes.
Far from pilgrimage declining in the modern world, improved methods of transport have meant that pilgrimages previously possible for only a very limited number - and taking a long time - have become much more accessible to large numbers of people.
A Hindu temple at Mysore, India. Hindu temples range from simple village shrines to large temple-cities' with boundary walls, enclosing courtyards, pools for bathing, schools, hospitals and monasteries.
Sacred Places and Rituals (1 of 3)
Time, sacred space and ritual all share the one purpose of uniting the eternal and the temporal. In almost all religions, certain times, days or seasons are either set or considered propitious for ceremonies or rituals. Special people are often selected by training, tradition or birth to perform them, while the places where they take place are usually considered sacred.
Sacred sites
Sacred space and rituals vary widely. Western Christian churches and cemeteries traditionally faced towards the east, but for many Protestant Christians the geography which determines location is more likely to be the need for an entrance opening onto the main street. Sites chosen for Christian worship in the Roman Empire were often sacred to earlier religions, places where the genius loci, the spirit of the grove, hill or stream, had been experienced. The sanctity of other churches was derived from history - the martyrdoms that had occurred there. St Peter's in Rome and St Alban's Abbey in England are notable examples. Association with events in the life of Jesus and the saints was also important. Elsewhere, relics might increase the sanctity of a rather ordinary church. Relics have their importance also in Buddhism, for example the temple in Kandy in Sri Lanka, where a tooth of the Buddha is preserved.
The origin of sites of great historical significance can be uncertain. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem is an example. King David bought the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite, where the angel of plague stayed his hand and God ordered an altar of commemoration to be set up. What earlier cultic significance it may have had is now unknown.
Important Hindu mandirs (temples) often stand on sites which are linked with an appearance of a deity. Builders tell of finding a lingam (phallic image) of Shiva, for example, where a mandir was
being erected. Others are associated with the birth of a god or goddess. Manifestations frequently provide reasons for places to be considered sacred. Examples include Lourdes, where the Virgin Mary appeared to St Bernadette, and some sites associated with the Hajj where the angel Gabriel appeared to the Prophet Muhammad and other prophets of Islam.
Sick pilgrims at the Grotto of the Roman Catholic shrine at Lourdes, France. The underground spring, revealed to St Bernadette Soubirous in a vision (1858), has been declared to have miraculous qualities.
Sacred Places and Rituals (2 of 3)
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage is of greatest importance in Hinduism. According to some criteria, the number of tiraths (places of pilgrimage) in India is as many as 64000. Where earth and sky, or land and sea, meet, or where two rivers converge, there is likely to be a tirath. Mountain tops, coasts, springs, river banks, and rivers themselves are places of pilgrimage.
Water is important in explaining the origins of sacred sites. The holy wells of Ireland are reminders of a Celtic tradition predating Christianity and absorbed into it. Many wells still attract devotees. The most famous pilgrimage of all, the Hajj to Mecca, has an association with water. Near the Kaaba - a cube-shaped building that is believed to have been built by Abraham at the place on earth immediately below God's house in heaven - is Zam Zam, the spring kicked up by the feet of Ishmael while his mother Hagar searched for water. Pilgrims soak the vestments that will later be their shrouds in the spring.
* THE UNIVERSE AND COSMOLOGY
* TIME
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
* RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
* WORSHIP, PRAYER AND PILGRIMAGE
* TEMPLE AND CHURCH ARCHITECTURE
460-79
504-19,
522-25,
528-31,
534,
538,
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Sacred Places and Rituals (page 3)
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A Muslim imam leads prayers during the funeral of a Bosnian army officer (1994). Imam is an Arabic word meaning leader or pattern and is used several times in the Qu'ran to refer to leaders and to Abraham.
Sacred Places and Rituals (3 of 3)
Sacred rituals
The most common forms of sacred space are mandirs, synagogues, churches, mosques and gurdwaras (Sikh places of worship). Buddhists use several terms to name places of worship.
The significance of sacred spaces varies considerably within faiths as well as between them. A Hindu temple may be an elaborate temple such as the Meenakshi temple in Madurai or a simple shelf in a home, perhaps in the kitchen. The deity is present in that space, which will be kept pure. Only vegetarian foods will be offered to the god and this may have to be done through a priest, a Brahmin who by birth and life is pure. Attendance at the worship offered in a mandir is not necessary as God lives within the domestic shrine as well as in the temple.
Synagogues were simply places of meeting for Jews, where they prayed and read and studied the Torah. No priests were or are required in synagogues as the only priestly role in Judaism is to carry out sacrificial ceremonies, which could only be performed in the Jerusalem Temple. After the Temple was destroyed in ad 70, priests had no function, though members of priestly families are still honored by being the first to be called to read the Torah scroll in a service. This may be led by any man (or in progressive synagogues by a woman). Rabbis may lead Jewish services, but they are not priests. Strictly speaking, they are teachers of the Torah with disciples, but, in effect, they often serve as ministers of the community which gathers at a synagogue.
Originally a mosque was a rectangle in the sand, marked off with a spear, which was then stuck in the ground to point the qibla (the direction in which travelers should pray). Now, a mosque may be an elaborate and highly ornate building of great beauty or a simple room in a house. In Sunni Islam, the prayer leader, the imam, may be any man, although in practice imams are usually formally trained and appointed to a professional position. In Shia Islam, the imam is a chosen leader of the community who must be descended from the Prophet. Mullahs and ayatollahs are theologians with no ritual functions.
The development of churches is similar to that of synagogues and mosques. In the early period of Christianity the ecclesia, or church, was a gathering of believers, often in the open air or in homes. Not until about ad 260 were Christians allowed to own property. Now
church' usually denotes a building.
In the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox traditions a church will be specially consecrated. The main ritual - the sacrament based on the Last Supper but called by many names (e.g. the Mass, Holy Communion, etc.) - will only be celebrated by an ordained priest, though in the New Testament use of this word was confined to priests of the Jewish Temple and to Jesus himself. Although never a requirement of Judaism, celibacy is sometimes a condition of priesthood, for example in the Roman Catholic Church. Bishops and patriarchs, who are found in these denominations, may be respected leaders but have no additional liturgical function other than ordaining others to the priesthood and confirming people into the faith.
Other Christian denominations which do not regard the service as a sacrifice call their clergy ministers and authorize any member of the congregation to conduct sacramental worship. The Society of Friends (Quakers) is an example of a Christian group which has no one person specially set apart to perform rituals.
Sikhism follows similar principles. Any Sikh who possesses the necessary ability - male or female - may lead worship. Only the initiation ceremony, which five initiated women or men must perform, is an exception to this rule. Sikhs have so far successfully resisted attempts to appoint leaders who might compete with the Guru Granth Sahib (the scriptures) for authority and allegiance. Sikhism's granthis are not priests, merely men and women who conduct worship.
Buddhism began as the teaching of the Buddha and the group of men and women, the sangha, whom he initiated to perpetuate these teachings. As it spread, Buddhism incorporated practices from the countries in which it took root. In Tibetan Buddhism charismatic, almost shamanistic, figures and Dalai Lamas (religious and political leaders) derive from the old religion of the region, while in Japan Buddhist priests perform the same funerary and memorial rites as the ancestor-worshipping Shintoists.
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Good and Evil (page 1)
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Hell by Hieronymus Bosch. The idea of hell as a place of eternal punishment for those who have sinned is common to all three religions of the Semitic tradition - Judaism, Islam and Christianity.
Good and Evil (1 of 3)
Religions and moral philosophy share a common concern with the question, 'What is the good life for humanity?' - that is, with morality. However, the ways in which philosophy and the religions of the world answer this question differ. Whereas contemporary philosophers tend to discuss morality without reference to anything beyond the human, religions see good and evil within a wider cosmological framework.
This cosmological framework usually involves, over and above human activity, the activities of supernatural beings - God, gods, angels, ancestors, Satan, demons, etc. Religions also maintain that the full significance of good and evil can only be appreciated in terms of beliefs about the continuance of human life beyond the grave.
Primal religions
Primal religions see 'good' mainly as that which enhances and strengthens the health, wealth and harmony of the individual and the community, and 'evil' as that which weakens the community or the individual. Both good and evil may result from human activity, but they may also be the result of the activity of gods, ancestors or spirits, whose will must be discovered by religious specialists, and who need ritual offerings from time to time to ensure their continued goodwill and to ward off evil intent. In primal societies any unwelcome events - sickness, accidents, bad luck - are usually attributed to the activity of supernatural beings, although they may also be the result of the activity of humans, as in the practice of witchcraft and sorcery.
Notions of rewards or punishments in an afterlife - for good or evil done in this life - are rare in surviving primal religions, but not unknown. The greatest reward is to be 'born again' into the human community.
Religions in the Indian tradition
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism see human life in terms of samsara - an eternal cycle of birth and rebirth operating according to the moral law of karma. Under this law, observance of dharma (religious duty) is rewarded by a good rebirth, while non-observance is punished by a bad rebirth. While this cycle is not of itself evil, it is not desirable, and the aim of all the religions in the Indian tradition is to secure the release (moksha) of the individual from samsara. This is the individual's ultimate good.
At the level of popular understanding, elements of primal religion remain, and rituals are performed to ensure the goodwill of gods, goddesses and spirits, and to ward off evil. The great gods of the Hindus, such as Vishnu or Shiva, are often thought of as being the originators of both good and evil. In this respect, Hinduism differs from religions in the Semitic tradition.
Buddhism sees the world not as evil in itself, but as the source of evil, with the human condition characterized by suffering (dukka) caused by individuals clinging (tanha) to existence in the world. The therapy for this is for the individual to renounce tanha and to search for the good of nirvana. Buddhism also has a conception of an evil spirit, Mara, who tries to tempt men and women from seeking release from the eternal round of birth and rebirth.
Sikhism, being monotheistic, sees humanity's good as responding in loving devotion (bhakti) to the voice of the divine guru - God. This is the way to obtain release from samsara. This is also the case in some Hindu sects, such as those de voted to the worship of Vishnu or Shiva.
Religions in the Semitic tradition
Judaism, Christianity and Islam - perhaps influenced by Zoroastrianism, which historically did much to sharpen the duality of good and evil - see the world as the battleground of a cosmic struggle between the forces of good (led by God) and the forces of evil (led by the Devil or Satan). Men and women are caught up in this struggle. While, on the cosmic level, the ultimate outcome is never in doubt, individual destinies (heaven or hell) are decided by obedience to the will of God (as revealed in the scriptures of the three religions) and by rejecting the temptations of the Devil and his demons (known in Islam as Jinn). Angels and saints may aid human beings in their struggle to overcome evil and do good, and so to reap the reward of paradise and eternal life. The alternative is hell, a place of eternal punishment.
The attempt to reconcile belief in a God who is all-good and all-powerful with the fact of evil and suffering in the world constitutes the theological and philosophical problem known in these three religions as 'the problem of evil'.
While Judaism and Islam emphasize obedience to the revealed law of God as the way to obtain good things in this life and in the world to come, Christianity has tended to emphasize love of God and of fellow humans, and to believe that men and women are ultimately saved from the consequences of doing evil by appealing to the crucifixion of Jesus as constituting 'a full and perfect sacrifice' for their sins.
The mystical tradition in these religions has, however, tended to see human good and human fulfillment not in terms of rewards and punishments for obedience or disobedience to divine commands, but rather in terms of the uniting of the human soul with 'the divine ground of all being'. This brings the idea of the final good of men and women in this tradition nearer to that found in the Vedanta tradition in India.
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Good and Evil (page 2)
ftsTitle
A 19th-century exorcism. In many religions - including various Christian traditions - it is thought possible for people to become possessed by evil spirits. In such religions, there are usually set rituals, known as exorcisms, to purge the afflicted person of the possession.
Good and Evil (2 of 3)
China and Japan
In China, while the Confucian code of conduct has guided men and women in their relations with one another, and Daoism (Taoism) has sought to show how the harmony of men and women with the natural order of the world can be maintained for the benefit of all, it has been Buddhism or, more precisely, Buddha and the bodhisattvas - saint-like beings who have renounced nirvana so as to help others achieve it - who, in the popular imagination, determine the ultimate destiny of the soul. In Chinese Buddhism, however, this destiny is thought of not so much as release from the eternal round of samsara, but rather in terms of traditional Chinese cosmology, where the souls of the departed are first purified through punishment in the infernal regions before the hoped-for entry into heaven. Certain Buddhist ceremonies are thought to aid release from the infernal regions.
Although Buddhism is widespread in Japan, the traditional religion of Shinto preserves the primal outlook and seeks, through a variety of ceremonies, to reap material good for men and women, and to ward off evil by placating the kami, or spiritual forces, believed to operate in the natural world. In Shinto (as in Hinduism) evil is thought of primarily as ritual pollution - something that cuts men and women off from the kami and makes their prayers and offerings unacceptable. The Shinto code of conduct is designed to enable men and women to avoid this. Where pollution occurs, Shinto pre scribes certain rituals for its eradication. In Shinto all good things ultimately derive from the Sun goddess Amaterasu, and all evil things from her brother Susano-o.
As in traditional Chinese cosmology, the dead go first to the regions below the Earth (Yomi-no-kuni), where evil spirits seek to detain them, before being transported to the land of the blessed (Tokoyo-no-kuni). As in China, Buddhist rituals are also thought to aid this process. Yomi-no-kuni is not, however, thought of as a place of punishment for evil deeds.
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
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Good and Evil (page 3)
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The snake is a symbol of evil in many religions. For example, in Genesis, it is a serpent that tempts Eve. In this illustration from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, the lynx goddess Tefnut kills the evil snake Apophis.
Good and Evil (3 of 3)
Morality and religion
Most religions maintain that much of the good and evil things that happen in the world occur, not as the result of what men and women do, but as the result of the activity of supernatural beings - although men and women can seek, by ritual means, to influence these beings. Men and women are, however, considered to be responsible for many of their actions and will be held accountable for them. In most religions the code of conduct by which men and women should behave is seen as something directly revealed to humanity by God or other divine beings.
In religions, therefore, morality only makes sense within the context of a total religious understanding of the world. In philosophy, however, attempts have been made, and are still being made, to establish morality on foundations that owe nothing to a religious outlook on the world.
The Tower of Philosophy (learning) from Gregor Reisch's Margarita Philosophica (1508). The child is taught that literacy is the key to the Tower of Philosophy. Until the 19th century the term philosophy covered all knowledge and wisdom.
2f2What is Philosophy? (1 of 1)
Everyone puzzles over such questions as 'Is there a God?', 'Should we believe what scientists tell us?', 'Is there always a right answer to moral dilemmas?' and 'Does a person survive after death?' But academic philosophy takes these familiar questions much further, and in doing so has developed techniques and a vocabulary of its own.
The word 'philosophy' is derived from the Greek meaning 'love of wisdom'. Until the 19th century the term was used to include what we now distinguish as 'science' (from the Latin for 'knowledge'), and this terminology persists in the names of some university courses, such as 'natural philosophy' for physics and 'moral sciences' for what we now call philosophy. Current usage, however, is more specialized: we now think of science as involving experimental testing of theories about how specific parts of the natural world work, while the concerns of philosophy are more general.
Philosophy and philosophies
We often talk of someone's 'philosophy of life', by which we mean the general principles by which they live, their goals, their values, or their yet more general view of the world and their place in it. Similarly, when we speak about the philosophy behind some government proposal, we mean the principles or rationale in terms of which the proposal is justified. Some Eastern philosophies are generalizations of these kinds of questions, seeking a reason, in some sense, for life or the universe, or seeking to reinterpret human experience within some larger scheme of things.
That this is what one tends to find on the philosophy shelves of bookshops and libraries often irritates academic philosophers, who think that such discussions of ultimate purpose are more a matter for theology than philosophy. Western academic philosophy, by contrast, is generally concerned with clarification rather than explanation - except when it is the nature of explanation itself that it seeks to clarify - perhaps because for two thousand years explanation in the West has been thought of in terms of causes rather than reasons.
There is, of course, a connection between this academic discipline and philosophy as rationale or world-view: philosophy at any level is concerned not with concrete but with abstract questions, and academic philosophy deals with these questions at their most general, posing questions not about whether a particular theory or explanation is true, but about, for example, whether it even makes sense, or, even more generally, questions about what it is for something to be a theory or explanation at all.
Philosophy as a second-order activity
Explanation and justification depend on argument, and logic is the branch of philosophy that studies this. Clearly, whether an argument is a good or a bad one does not depend upon what it is about, so logic is concerned with the form of an argument rather than its content. Similarly, questions about knowledge, or about the relation between mind and language, or about language and the world, are general and independent of what is known or thought or said.
Philosophy, then, is not a first-order activity, concerned to discover the truth about some specific subject, but a second-order activity, whose true subject is the first-order activity itself.
This is perhaps most obvious in the field of ethics, where the first-order activity - moralizing - seeks to establish the correctness of certain rules of conduct, while second-order theorizing - moral philosophy - is concerned with questions that arise whatever first-order theory we adopt. Not all philosophers, however, have observed this distinction, and many philosophers of the past have been concerned with how we should behave and what constitutes a good life. Indeed, there remain live philosophical disputes about whether certain second-order theories about the nature of morality force us to adopt particular first-order moral principles. In any event, conceptual clarity can only help us to reach reliable moral decisions, so there must remain a role for philosophy even in unambiguous moralizing. On the other hand, discussions of how moral language works, of whether there are moral absolutes, or of the logic of moral disagreement do not lead to conclusions about right conduct. On the contrary, these questions are not specific to ethics, but are more generally about truth and reality, about knowledge and justification, about logic and language.
Changing preoccupations in philosophy
These very general questions reflect the distinct preoccupations of three different eras in the history of philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophers and their followers through medieval times were mainly concerned with metaphysics - that is questions about the ultimate nature of reality. The existence of God, the nature of time, and the relation of mind and body are metaphysical questions that are still discussed, albeit with different emphasis.
One major change was the stress placed since the 17th century on epistemological questions. For example, Renu Descartes sought to reconstruct all human knowledge systematically on the model of Euclid's geometry. Reacting to this rationalist search for mathematical certainty, the empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume questioned the origin of human know ledge, and regarded philosophy as clearing the ground for science. Their speculation about how the mind works (out of which grew the empirical science of psychology) led to the condemnation of metaphysics as beyond the limits of knowability.
More recently, philosophy in the English-speaking world has turned to consideration of the nature of language itself. In the light of the insights gained from this, many traditional philosophical problems have been reinterpreted as arising from mistaken presuppositions about the way language works. Philosophical problems are then seen as a matter of 'losing one's way' conceptually, and the task of philosophy is reduced to what Ludwig Wittgenstein called 'showing the fly the way out of the fly-bottle'.
Teaching philosophy through its history
It seems obvious that the history of philosophy is not itself philosophy. Yet - although it would be odd, for example, to teach chemistry by giving lectures on alchemy - philosophy is often taught by reviewing its past. This is because philosophical methods of reasoning do not break down, like arithmetic, into simple skills that can be easily taught and practiced: if they can be taught at all, it is by example. So one reason for studying the great philosophers of the past is to learn from their example.
One does not, however, become a philosopher by learning what others have thought; we have to learn how to solve problems for ourselves. And this suggests another reason for studying the great philosophers of the past - namely as a source of arguments and opinions that the newcomer can subject to rigorous scrutiny.
There is no contradiction here between treating past philosophers both as examples to emulate and as perpetrators of fallacies that even a beginner can recognize: much philosophical discussion is about which past theories should be accepted and which rejected. It is this search for new arguments about old positions that distinguishes teaching philosophy through its history from teaching a history of ideas. While history involves the accumulation of facts, philosophy is concerned with the assessment of argument and the teaching of a skill - philosophizing. The gulf between philosophy and the history of ideas is thus that between knowing how to do something and knowing that some statement is true - a distinction that has itself been the subject of much philosophical debate in the 20th century.
Major Philosophers
Heraclitus (c. 540-c. 480 BC), Pre-Socratic philosopher whose doctrine is often represented as 'everything is change'.
Parmenides (born c. 515 BC), Pre-Socratic metaphysician who believed that time, motion and change are all illusory.
Socrates (c. 470-399 BC), Greek philosopher, who, through his pupil Plato is perhaps the crucial influence on the development of Western thought.
Plato (427-347 BC), Greek philosopher, whose works form the foundation of Western philosophy.
Aristotle (384-322 BC), Greek philosopher and scientist, whose works have influenced the whole of Western philosophy.
St Augustine (AD 354-430), North African convert to Christianity, who saw philosophy as auxiliary to faith and interpreted Christian doctrine in the light of Platonic philosophy.
St Anselm (1033-1109), Italian monk, who first propounded the ontological argument.
St Thomas Aquinas (1225-74), Italian philosopher and scholastic theologian.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), English empiricist philosopher, author of Leviathan, best known for his political philosophy.
Renu Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician - generally regarded as the father of modern philosophy.
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza (1632-77), Dutch rationalist philosopher, who was accused both of atheism and of pantheism.
John Locke (1632-1704), English empiricist philosopher and political theorist.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1645-1716), German rationalist philosopher and mathematician.
George Berkeley (1685-1753), Irish bishop and empiricist philosopher who produced a paradoxical response to skepticism and atheism.
David Hume (1711-76), Scottish empiricist philosopher and historian, a major influence on subsequent Western philosophy.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), Swiss-born political philosopher.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), influential German philosopher and scientist.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), English legal philosopher, who attempted to quantify utilitarianism by devising a 'hedonic calculus'.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), German philosopher, who applied logical concepts to historical processes, so that history becomes a dialectic in which one process, the thesis, is contradicted by another, the antithesis, and then both are subsumed in a synthesis.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), German anti-Hegelian follower of Kant, who distinguished noumenal and phenomenal aspects of the Self, and emphasized the role of the (possibly unconscious) will, from which art is the only escape.
John Stuart Mill (1806-73), English philosopher, economist and social reformer.
ren Kierkegaard (1813-55), Danish philosopher and theologian, whose rejection of objectivity as an illusion that leads us to accept rules of ethical conduct greatly influenced the later existentialists.
Karl Marx (1818-83), German revolutionary and social theorist, whose philosophical position was largely a materialist reinterpretation of Hegel.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), American physicist, logician and philosopher who proposed the pragmatist doctrine that concepts are to be understood in terms of their practical significance.
William James (1842-1910), American medical professor and pragmatist philosopher, brother of the novelist Henry James. He applied Peirce's pragmatism to the dissolution of metaphysics, saw truth in terms of productiveness and believed that emotions are caused by bodily events.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), German-born philosopher, who argued that the will to power is the primary human drive, and that the goal of history is to produce a society of supermen. These ideas were later taken up by Nazi ideologists.
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925), German mathematics professor, who established the foundations of mathematics as a discipline.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German mathematician and philosopher, whose phenomenology was intended as an account of the content of the consciousness.
John Dewey (1859-1952), American pragmatist philosopher and psychologist who synthesized the ideas of Peirce and James and developed the notion that ideas, statements and theories are instruments of prediction, and are to be judged for their usefulness rather than their truth.
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), English philosopher, logician and social reformer.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), Austrian-born philosopher, and the most influential figure in 20th-century philosophy (pp. 496-7). Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, who followed Husserl in denying the distinction between consciousness and the external world, and saw the human predicament in terms of the necessity of constant choice, in which the rejected possibilities are condemned to 'nothingness'.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80), French philosopher and intellectual, generally regarded as the chief exponent of existentialism.
Willard van Orman Quine (1908- ), American logician, who rejects as 'Two Dogmas of Empiricism' the distinction between analytic and synthetic, and the reductionist interpretation of observation language.
Sir Alfred (A.J.) Ayer (1910-89), English logical positivist philosopher.
* THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
* THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
* SETS AND PARADOXES
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* WHAT IS RELIGION?
* GOOD AND EVIL
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* ETHICS
* MIND AND BODY
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
Encyclopedia
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Knowledge and Reality (page 1)
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St. Thomas Aquinas
Knowledge and Reality (1 of 2)
Philosophy has traditionally been seen as a search for the most general and well-founded knowledge, or knowledge of ultimate truth. Yet philosophy has also been concerned to evaluate, systematize or justify the claims to knowledge made by others. Both approaches raise questions about the nature and extent of possible knowledge - and indeed about whether true knowledge is ever possible at all. The philosophical study of the validity, methods and scope of knowledge is known as epistemology.
Change is paradoxical: on the one hand change - by definition - destroys identity; on the other, it is the same entity, albeit with different properties, that survives the change. This paradox was addressed by the earliest philosophers whose works have survived - the Greek Pre-Socratics of the 6th and 5th centuries BC. They offered two radically opposed solutions. On one side, Heraclitus believed that all things are related by an 'ever-living fire, ever flaring up and ever extinguished', so that identity is illusory and even truth is unstable. Others, such as Parmenides, held that it is time, motion and change that are illusory, while reality is indivisible and unchanging. It was against this background that the three greatest Greek philosophers - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle - conducted the inquiries that have influenced the whole of Western thought.
The theory of Forms
One of the best known of all philosophical theories is the theory of Forms. According to Plato, although general terms such as 'justice', 'circle' or 'horse' can be applied to a number of different things, what they really refer to is an abstract object - a 'Form' or 'Idea', an archetype of justice or circularity or horsiness. A particular circle on a page is thus a circle because it somehow partakes of, or is a pale copy of, the archetypical circle. These Forms do not exist in the world of experience; they are independent of human understanding. Change is therefore located in our everyday world, while reality belongs to the unchanging world of Forms. Since ordinary material objects are changeable, their properties cannot be known infallibly. The same thing may be an acorn one day, later a sapling, still later an oak, and in due course die, decay, and become nothing at all. But no such change affects the world of Forms: there an acorn is for all time a seed, an oak for all time a tree. Only there is true knowledge attainable. All we can hope for in the world of changing physical reality is mere opinion or belief, so neither observation nor science can yield true knowledge. Know ledge and belief are thus totally distinct: they are not even concerned with the same objects.
Knowledge, doubt and certainty
'Modern' philosophy is often taken to begin some 2000 years later with the work of the 17th-century French scientist and philosopher Renu Descartes, but he too was primarily concerned to set the highest possible standard for knowledge. He was greatly struck by both the certainty and the systematic nature of mathematics; his aim was to encompass all human knowledge within a single theory with the same certainty and generality as mathematics. Descartes's best-known work, the Meditations (1641), addresses the issue of whether knowledge is ever possible. His 'method of doubt' seeks to weed out any beliefs about which we cannot be certain. Since the same table may sometimes look round and sometimes oval - if viewed from different angles - reason alone confirms the unreliability of the senses. All sensory experience must therefore be cast aside; it is also possible that we might merely be dreaming that certain beliefs are true, and such beliefs must also be cast aside. Even arithmetic succumbs to a 'hyperbolic doubt' occasioned by the thought that there might be an 'evil demon' who forever deceives us.
In the midst of this extreme skepticism, however, Descartes identifies an inalienable certainty. This is his famous statement, 'I think; therefore I exist' (Cogito ergo sum): however deep my doubt, I must exist in order to doubt; thus from the very fact that I have the thought that I might not exist, I can know with complete certainty that I do. Subsequent philosophers have discussed the Cogito in great detail: some have argued that Descartes begs the question by starting from 'I think' rather than 'There is a thought', while others have questioned whether the Cogito can really be an argument at all, since the all-encompassing doubt is supposed to challenge even the reliability of logic.
Immanuel Kant, 18th-century German philosopher and scientist. In the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) he suggested that human understanding contributes twelve categories, which are not learnt from experience but which form the conceptual framework by virtue of which we make sense of it. Similarly, the unity of science is not discovered by science but is what makes science possible. He believed, however, that by transcendental argument it is possible to infer the bare existence of a world beyond experience.
$Knowledge and Reality (2 of 2)
Reason and rationalism
Descartes's influence lay not so much in the detail of his doctrine as in his approach. From his single certainty, he goes on to argue that God exists and would not have created me only in order to deceive me; so that my senses and memory can in general be relied upon, provided that I am cautious. From this it follows that science is in principle possible.
He thus argues that everything we know about the world can be deduced from a single basic truth that is discoverable by reason alone rather than experience. This is a controversial belief, and indeed, the major division in subsequent philosophy has been between rationalists, who up-hold it, and empiricists, who repudiate it.
Among Descartes's immediate successors, the most influential were Spinoza and Leibniz. Both stressed the deducibility of all knowledge and constructed metaphysical theories in which this was possible. Spines believed that since everything is deducible from a small number of self-evident axioms, everything happens necessarily as it does. Leibniz shared the fundamental rationalist conviction that everything is explicable by reason alone, believing that it is in principle possible to deduce a complete description of the world, including its future, from a description of any one of the infinitely many simple immaterial substances (monads) that exists. The only 'sufficient reason' for the existence of this world rather than another is that God, who can thus determine which is the best possible world, wills it: human experience is thus subordinated to an in dependent and divinely ordained reality.
Ideas and experience
The competing British empiricist school developed largely in response to Des cartes; indeed, Thomas Hobbes when a refugee in France wrote a set of 'Objections' that were published in the same volume as the Meditations.
In his Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690) John Locke argued vehemently that all ideas are derived from experience, and that knowledge is the 'perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas'. Although conceptual truth could still be independent of any particular experience, the acquisition of the concepts themselves could not. For example, although whales would be mammals whether or not anyone had ever discovered the fact, I cannot understand this sentence unless I know what whales and mammals are, which requires a chain of definition ultimately terminating with direct experience.
Locke argued that if everything had a unique name, we would not only be unable to communicate with one another, but we would not even be able to record our own thoughts. Consequently we 'abstract' from the ideas of diverse things whatever they have in common, and we designate the idea of that common property by a general term. Thus, for example, the word 'red' does not refer to anything independent of red things and of human observers of those things; on the contrary, it refers to the thought of red that is common to all perceptions of red things.
The Irish philosopher George Berkeley objected that Locke's general ideas must have contradictory properties. The general idea of a triangle, he said, would have to be equilateral and scalene (i.e. having all sides of unequal length), and the general idea of a man would have to be tall and short, fat and thin, and so on. Berkeley therefore suggested that general words do not stand for general ideas, but for images of particular instances that somehow represent the whole class. This is no real improvement, however, as it simply shifts the problem of generality from the idea itself to its relation with its instances.
Language, according to Locke, is a process for communicating or transferring ideas from one mind to another. But since you have no access to my ideas nor I to yours, we can never tell whether this transfer has been successful. Worse, if all we experience are ideas, we cannot even know that these ideas represent a world outside them-selves. Faced with Locke's difficulty, Berkeley gave the paradoxical response that 'external' objects are just ideas; the reality and intelligibility of the perceived world then consists in its being observed by an 'all-wise Spirit', God, who is also the active agent in those regularities described by science.
Experience and the limits of thought
Perhaps the most influential of the empiricists was the Scots-man David Hume, who remarked that Berkeley's skeptical arguments 'admit of no answer but produce no conviction'. Instead he sought to secure the foundation of knowledge by avoiding all subjects beyond the scope of human reason; that is, by restricting intellectual consideration to ideas that can be shown to be directly or indirectly derived from experience. He uses this principle to cast doubt on the reality of the 'self' and of causal connection, but concludes that these ideas are indeed derived - albeit by a complex route - from experience.
Hume's other major principle, known as Hume's Fork, was the division of all statements between 'relations of ideas', which can be known by reason alone, and 'matters of fact', which can always be imagined to be otherwise and require experience to adjudicate. However, Hume argues, neither reason nor experience can justify how we learn from experience; his solution is strikingly modern, and insists that induction cannot in fact be justified, but is merely a 'habit or custom', a 'principle of human nature', part of what Wittgenstein calls our 'form of life' or 'the natural history of our species'.
These doctrines had a profound effect, not least upon Immanuel Kant. Although his early work was in the rationalist tradition of Leibniz, reading Hume 'interrupted [his] dogmatic slumbers' and spurred him to develop a new synthesis, which he referred to as transcendental idealism. In the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) Kant agreed with Hume that metaphysical error arises from trying to apply concepts derived from experience beyond the scope of experience; he nonetheless believed that 'transcendental' argument about the conditions for intelligible experience could yield metaphysical truths.
In order to state clearly the issue between them, Kant replaced Hume's Fork with two distinctions. The first distinction is a matter of logic: if it is self-contradictory to deny some statement, that statement is analytic; otherwise it is synthetic. Kant claims, however, contrary to Hume, that the epistemological distinction between a statement that may be knowable without experience (a priori) and one that requires experience to determine its truth (a posteriori) does not coincide with the first distinction. For Kant, human understanding is not merely passive, but itself contributes synthetic a priori propositions such as that every event has a cause. These are not learnt from experience but form the conceptual framework by virtue of which we are able to make sense of experience at all.
The retreat from metaphysics
Hume's Fork and Kant's reworking of it have continued to define the terms of much 20th-century debate. Positivists such as A. J. Ayer and Karl Popper, for example, have been forced to address the status of these putative synthetic a priori truths in order to reinstate their own versions of Hume's Fork. Thus Ayer's 'verification principle' and Popper's criterion of falsifiability are both intended to exclude metaphysical statements as meaningless. Not all modern philosophers have been so opposed to metaphysics. The Oxford philosopher Peter Strawson (1919- ), for example, finds a role for 'descriptive metaphysics [that is] content to describe the actual structure of our thought about the world'. However, this project is more akin to Wittgenstein's conception of philosophy as 'assembling reminders' about the use of language than it is to traditional 'revisionary' metaphysics.
MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY
St Thomas Aquinas (1225-74), the philosopher and scholastic theologian, sought in his writings to reconcile Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy. Aquinas believed that the existence of a first cause or Supreme Being (i.e. God) could be deduced from our observation of causation, motion and order in the universe. He nevertheless believed that faith and reason are distinct.
Another famous argument for the existence of God, the ontological argument, had been put forward by the Italian monk St Anselm two centuries earlier. Since God is by definition that than which nothing greater can be conceived, he must exist. Otherwise a being greater than God could exist - one with the same characteristics plus existence.
PLATO'S CAVE
In the Republic Plato likens mankind to lifelong prisoners who sit in a darkened cave, chained so that they can only see what is directly in front of them. Their only experience is of the shadows of objects thrown by a fire behind them onto the wall opposite. According to Plato, our knowledge of reality is as incomplete as that of the prisoners. Only when a prisoner is unbound and shown the puppets and the fire, and is then dragged outside and shown the puppeteers and the Sun, will he attain true knowledge. Finally, in an apologia for the perennially misunderstood philosopher, the enlightened prisoner returns to the cave, where his floundering in the darkness makes others think that freedom has ruined his sight.
* THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* MIND AND BODY
* ETHICS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
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Mind and Body (page 1)
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Rene Descartes, 17th-century French philosopher, scientist and mathematician, often regarded as the father of modern philosophy. He believed that all knowledge could be derived from axioms self-evident to reason and independent of experience. His method of systematic doubt had the effect of breaking the hold of theology over philosophy, while his dualistic theory of mind and body created a puzzle that has exercised philosophers ever since.
Mind and Body (1 of 3)
Many religions subscribe to the belief that human beings have an immaterial mind or soul as well as a body - a belief that gives rise to problems that have been discussed by philosophers since the time of Plato. The key questions center on the evidence for the existence of the mind and - if it does exist - how its apparent interaction with the body occurs. Another common religious belief is that the soul survives the death of the body, and this gives rise to a second group of questions, about personal identity - that is, about the conditions under which someone remains the same person through a process of change. Both issues, however, must first address the question of what a person is.
What constitutes a person has always been a vexed philosophical conundrum. If one holds that the defining characteristic of a person is intelligent or voluntary behavior, one faces the challenge of framing criteria that include the mentally handicapped and the incurably comatose, while excluding higher primates and fifth-generation computers. If one instead holds the dualist view that persons are distinguished from animals by their possession of an immaterial mind or soul, one faces the no less difficult challenge of spelling out the criteria by which to determine whether or not such a mind is present.
Dualism
People are often thought of as consisting of a physical body and an immaterial entity - the soul, mind or spirit. A physical body has a position in space from which it excludes other things, it can be moved around or dismembered, it has a chemical composition, and it is subject to all the laws of physics. A mind or soul, on the other hand, cannot be directly observed, cannot be analyzed chemically or influenced by the laws of physics, and competes neither with other such entities nor with bodies for its position in space. It is the mind or soul with which we think, feel, desire, understand, regret, and so forth, and which is held to distinguish us from animals. This set of beliefs forms the core of metaphysical dualism.
Dualism certainly reflects the way ordinary language speaks about people, but it is a metaphysical rather than a linguistic theory, making a fundamental claim about the nature of reality. Regarded in this way, the theory is clearly incomplete: it may be that we are each an amalgam of two utterly distinct entities, but dualism says nothing whatever about the relationship between them. The traditional answer is that the bodily senses convey information about the world to the mind, which then exercises reason to decide upon a course of action; the mind then somehow conveys instructions to the body for it to carry out.
This is essentially the view formulated by the French philosopher Descartes in the 17th century. Unfortunately his theory, known as interactionism, raises more questions than it answers. The most obvious is that, since immaterial substance is by definition not affected by physical substance and the body is itself a physical object, his theory is actually committed to denying that such an interaction can take place. Descartes himself thought he could meet this difficulty by locating the interaction within the brain, but this does no more than localize the interaction - and the problem - and so misses the point. In an attempt to bridge the gap, Des cartes' younger contemporary Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715) proposed in stead that God constantly intervenes to bring about the apparent interaction (a version of the theory known as occasionalism), while Leibniz believed in a world of infinitely many distinct, simple sub stances (monads) that are incapable of interaction but are like two clocks that God has set to keep time with each other without any direct causal interaction (a doctrine known as parallelism).
Neither of these theories, however, ex plains how the non-physical can interact with the physical, since both ascribe a crucial role to a God who is no more a part of the physical world than the mind.
* ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
* THE BRAIN
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* SLEEP, DREAMS AND THE UN CONSCIOUS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* ETHICS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
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Mind and Body (page 2)
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Renc Descartes' idea of vision, showing the passage of a nervous impulse from the eye to the pineal gland. Descartes believed that it was in the pineal gland that the mind and body interacted although they remained distinct and separate entities.
Mind and Body (2 of 3)
Knowledge of other minds
Dualism gives rise to another problem: how do we know that minds other than our own do exist? Of course we see other human bodies around us, we hear seemingly articulate speech emanating from them, and we can apparently affect the behavior of these bodies in a way that suggests they have heard and understood our words and acted accordingly. But, for the dualist at least, none of this is conclusive evidence that other people have minds. The development of computers has given the other-minds problem a new lease of life. The languages of computing and human intellect have come to infect one another: we talk of a machine or a program deciding how to process a form, and of children being programmed by their early experiences. Although we know that computers merely apply rules in a de terminate manner and do not really think, such expressions no longer sound metaphorical, and the development of computers that are able to learn from their mistakes by amending their own programs offers the vision of a machine whose behavior is indistinguishable from that of a person.
Perhaps another case sheds some light on this: the fact that scientists have taught chimpanzees to communicate in sign language at about the level of a 5-year-old child does not make them persons, yet we clearly regard this achievement as more significant than teaching a dog to walk on its hind legs. Dogs are said to recognize their owner's voice, horses refuse to jump, cats want to be let out, but frogs do not refuse and worms do not want. This suggests that whether we are prepared to talk of something as a person or treat it as a member of the moral community is not a matter of the existence or otherwise of some kind of immaterial entity, but rather of how close an analogy there is between its behavior and our own. The same ranking emerges in morality: few people have qualms about killing flies, while experiments on dogs cause more upset than those on rats; even the Nazis had first to portray their victims as 'sub-human' before wholesale murder could be presented as morally permissible. Perhaps then the concept of a person is itself a moral one: persons are those with whom we interact in terms of duties and obligations.
Materialism and behaviorism
The other-minds problem arose as a consequence of dualism, but dualism is not the only possible view of mind and body. Many philosophers have held instead that there is only one kind of substance. Materialism is the theory that all that exists is material, physical substance, so that minds or souls as generally conceived do not exist. It is often suggested that neurology provides direct evidence for this, since mental impairment seems to be both the symptom and the consequence of brain damage. However, this is not conclusive against Descartes' view that the mind and body interact through the brain, for it could be that it is only the connections that are damaged and not the mind itself. Indeed, the common experience of stroke victims, who seem to know what they want to say and show frustration at their inability to express it, seems to be neurological evidence against materialism.
Another problem with materialism is that the very fact that we understand each other's talk of minds and mental events suggests that there must be something about which we are talking. One form of behaviorism denies that there are such things as minds, but avoids this objection by rejecting the naive referential view of how language works from which it would follow that mentalistic language is meaningless. Instead it is suggested that what look grammatically like expressions that refer to mental objects and events are in reality abbreviations for complex descriptions of behavior. This was the view of the English philosopher Giblet Ryle (1900-76), who argued that we do not judge someone a good chess player by inquiring about their mental processes but by observing that they consistently make the right moves. He claimed that Descartes' theory portrayed the mind as no more than a 'ghost in the machine', just as someone who had never before seen a car might insist that there must be a horse in it somewhere, albeit invisible and in tangible.
* ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
* THE BRAIN
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* SLEEP, DREAMS AND THE UN CONSCIOUS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* ETHICS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
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Mind and Body (page 3)
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Jean-Paul Sartre
Mind and Body (3 of 3)
Personal identity
Suppose that, in a world just slightly more advanced than ours, you suffer a serious accident in which your entire body is crushed, but your skull and brain are intact. At about the same time I, quite literally, blow my brains out, and our mangled remains arrive simultaneously at the same hospital. Suppose, too, that there is no technical obstacle to implanting your uninjured brain in my body and that this procedure is carried out. Who then survives the operation - me (with a new brain), you (with a new body), or someone different from either of us? This (in our imagined world) would not merely be an academic question. Many things would hang on which of us was deemed to be alive and which dead. Who is tried for your bank robbery, for instance, and who inherits which estate? If we say the survivor is you because he has your memories, will that cut much ice with your family and friends when you - a male - come home in my - female - body? If we say the survivor is me because he has my body, or that he is a new person altogether, how do we explain his memories, which seem linked to your past in (almost) the normal way? Now let us make the story worse. The human brain consists of two more or less separate and autonomous hemispheres, each of which controls the opposite side of the body and is specialized in various ways; nonetheless people have survived the loss of one half of their brain, and have lived reasonably normal lives. Note that the fact that we talk of survival entails that we judge the person who emerges from the operating theater to be the same person as the person who went in. Now suppose that my brother and I both blow our brains out, and half of your brain is transplanted into each of our heads. If you thought before that the survivor was you because he had your brain and so your memories, do you now think that both survivors are you? And does that mean that they are now one and the same person, occupying two bodies? And what if my body receives a second half-brain from another donor? The patient now has two sets of memories, one from each hemisphere; is he then two people in the same body? Personal identity survives some kinds of physical and mental change: I am the same person now as the child I remember being and as the old man for whose retirement I am planning. But what are the limits to such change? Is there some part of me - my brain, my mind (as Descartes argued), my memory (as Locke held) - which is the essential me?
EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism is not a single philosophical system, but is typified by certain attitudes. Its name derives from the proposition that 'existence precedes essence' - that one becomes what one is by virtue of the decisions one makes, rather than being determined by nature, society or even reason. In Being and Nothingness (1943) Jean-Paul Sartre distinguishes the 'being in itself' of inert matter from the 'being for itself', which is capable of free choice by virtue of its awareness of 'not-being'. Human beings are therefore condemned to the anxiety (angst) of freedom, but can take refuge in 'bad faith' (mauvaise foi ): thus they may blame society for their own decisions, for example, or 'objectify' themselves by playing the role society expects of them.
* ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
* THE BRAIN
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* SLEEP, DREAMS AND THE UN CONSCIOUS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* ETHICS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
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Ethics (page 1)
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The Death of Socrates (1787) by Jacques-Louis David.
Ethics (1 of 2)
Frequently in our everyday lives we encounter ethical concepts, such as rights and duties, benefit and harm, right and wrong, good and bad. Such concepts are also the stuff of politics, as is clear from every letter to the editor about the legalization of drugs, every demonstration for or against abortion, every government debate on capital punishment. Moral philosophy studies these ethical concepts, seeking not a unique solution to all our ethical dilemmas but a better understanding of the concepts themselves.
Disagreement about matters of taste are equally familiar: if you think cabbage tastes disgusting and I disagree, we just agree to differ. Although we seem to contradict one another, in reality we do not, any more than if I say I feel warm and you say you do not. One statement is about you, the other about me: there is nothing to which we are ascribing incompatible properties.
Taste and morality
It is sometimes suggested that people's moral outlooks can differ from one another in this way too. But, if this were so, a disagreement about whether eating people is wrong would be like a disagreement about whether cabbage tastes disgusting, rather than being analogous to a factual disagreement, such as whether cabbage contains vitamins. Most people, however, simply do not take this view of ethical disagreements: we cannot agree to differ while one of us practices cannibalism and the other refrains from it; on the contrary, if you stand by and watch without protest while another person kills and eats somebody else, your behavior is equally reprehensible. In fact, it casts doubt on your claim to believe that cannibalism is wrong, because if you did you would not just refrain yourself but also try to prevent others. This is one sense in which moral judgments are said to be universalizable.
They are, however, like factual disagreements in being amenable to argument: if we disagree about whether cabbage contains vitamins, we can attempt to cite arguments to persuade one another, and might even conduct an experiment to settle the matter; but if we dispute whether it tastes good, there is nothing either of us can do or say to convince the other. Judgments of artistic merit seem to fall somewhere between the two extremes: argument may convince us of the aesthetic merit of a painting or a play, but we can still insist that we nonetheless just don't like it. In ethics, however, it does not seem possible, without irrationality, both to accept an argument and to demur from its conclusion. Of course in a moral dilemma there will be arguments on both sides, and even after reaching a decision you may still have doubts - but what you cannot rationally do is to bring the argument to a conclusion about where your duty lies and yet still insist on making the opposite judgment.
Values and facts
Both judgments of taste and moral judgments are value judgments. While all such judgments can have the form of grammatical statements, it is not always natural to talk of them as being true or false. 'That's not true' seems appropriate as a reply to the claim that cabbage contains vitamins but not to the statement that cabbage tastes nice.
Despite such considerations, it is clear that moral judgments are related in some way to facts - after all, it is about the facts that we make the judgments, and it is argument about the facts that makes us change our minds. The simplest theory is that there are moral facts and that moral judgments are true if they report those facts correctly, and false otherwise; this is known as descriptivism. Descriptivist theories fall into two camps: on the one hand there are naturalistic theories that attempt to define ethical terms such as 'right' or 'good' in non-ethical language; on the other there are non-naturalistic theories that claim that, while there are moral properties and moral facts, these cannot be defined in non-ethical terms.
Defining moral terms
Naturalistic theories are manifold: hedonistic theories, for example, define 'good' in terms of human pleasure or happiness, while egoistic theories define moral obligation in terms of seeking one's own advantage; theistic theories define right action as that which is commanded by God. The best-known hedonistic theory is the utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill, which holds that in any moral conflict the right thing to do is that which results in the 'greatest happiness for the greatest number'.
Any such theory can, however, be criticized for committing what the Cambridge philosopher G.E. Moore (1873-1958) called the naturalistic fallacy. This can be illustrated by considering the theory that 'right' means 'promoting general happiness'. Obviously not everyone accepts the theory, so it must remain contentious whether it is right to promote general happiness. But because it is about the meaning of 'right', the theory has the absurd consequence that this supposedly contentious question means the same as the vacuously uncontentious one of whether it is right to act rightly. This argument suggests that there is a gulf between 'facts' and 'values' (or, as is sometimes said, between 'is' and 'ought') too wide to be bridged by any naturalistic definition.
Some moral philosophers, including G.E. Moore himself, have therefore concluded that ethical terms ascribe some indefinable non-natural moral property. But such a doctrine immediately raises the problem of how we could ever resolve moral disputes. Color may be indefinable, but disputes can be settled by appealing to the consensus of people with normal vision. In the case of deep ethical disagreement, however, there will be no consensus about whose 'moral vision' is normal, nor any way of settling the matter independent of the original disagreement.
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* MIND AND BODY
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
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Ethics (page 2)
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John Stuart Mill, English philosopher, economist and social reformer, whose On Liberty (1859) is the classic statement of the principle of maximum individual liberty for all. He tempered Jeremy Bentham's utilitarian 'greatest happiness principle' with egalitarianism, and argued for female emancipation and universal suffrage.
Ethics (2 of 2)
The force of moral judgments
One way out of these difficulties is to defend a naturalistic account of the correct use of ethical terms, but to insist that it does not exhaust their meaning. A more radical response is to reject the descriptivist presupposition common to both naturalism and non-naturalism.
Both these responses share an underlying belief that part of the explanation of the meaning of an expression must be an account of what speech act it performs and that the grammatical structure of an expression is at best only a superficial guide to how it is used. Where the two approaches differ is about whether fact-stating remains part of the force of moral judgments; if it does, they retain a truth value, but if value judgments do not state facts at all, they can never strictly speaking be true or false.
Since moral judgments clearly do have a prescriptive force and often reflect an individual's attitudes, the commonest analogies for the force of moral judgments are commands and exclamations. Expressions of either kind can clearly be said to contradict one another, so that some of the logical properties of moral argument can be accounted for. The pre scriptivism of the Oxford philosopher Richard Hare (1919- ) holds that moral judgments have the force of universalized commands and that this accounts for their authority, while the emotivism of A.J. Ayer suggests that a moral judgment does not report but actually ex-presses an attitude.
While emotivism explains why sincerity may seem a more appropriate measure than truth, treating 'Eating people is wrong' as equivalent to 'Down with cannibalism' hardly conveys the seriousness of moral judgment: rational ethical debate is surely more than the chanting of competing slogans.
Good and duty
Neither emotivism nor prescriptivism lays down any logical restrictions on the content of a person's moral views. This may not be an objection, however: once we have restricted our attention to the question of how moral language works, we should not be surprised that the answer is as limited as the question. The objection should perhaps rather be to the suggestion that this is all there is to say about moral language. The fact that we can make sense of ascribing to a Nazi a moral outlook that is abhorrent to us shows that we do distinguish between those of a person's beliefs that count for that person as a morality and the question of whether we ourselves adjudge those views moral. Only beliefs that are moral in the first sense can be moral or immoral in the second sense; otherwise they are non-moral - simply not in the ethical arena at all.
Granting, then, that our moral beliefs are those to which we have certain attitudes and which we regard as binding and universal, what permits us to say that the Nazi's beliefs are morally abhorrent, even though they pass all such tests? The obvious answer is that they sanction cruelty, murder, and senseless war. Such a response implicitly appeals to a naturalistic criterion of morality, but this time there is no threat of fallacy, because a criterion is weaker than a definition. In fact many of those who believe that the meaning of ethical terms is best explained in terms of their force nonetheless regard the general good as a criterion of moral value.
Even this weaker claim, however, falls foul of the suggestion that duty must be done for its own sake, and not to achieve some further end such as human happiness. This is the view taken in the 18th century by Kant, who proposed a number of formulations of what he referred to as the categorical imperative. According to this principle, you should only act in a manner that could be adopted by everyone, and you should always treat people as ends in themselves rather than means to an end. He argued that it is part of the very concept of duty that, even if you do what duty dictates, but you do it for some extraneous reason, your action is not praiseworthy. Morality is thus, for Kant, concerned with motive rather than outcome, and the only right action is that motivated by duty for its own sake.
THE GREAT GREEK
PHILOSOPHERS
Although perhaps the crucial influence on the development of Western thought, Socrates wrote nothing; his work is mainly known through that of his pupil Plato, whose chief protagonist bears his name. Socrates was well known in Athens of the 5th century BC for arguing with people and challenging their ethical beliefs; this eventually led to his being charged with corrupting the young and condemned to drink hemlock in 399 BC.
Plato's works form the foundation of Western philosophy. The early dialogues are believed to reflect the views of Socrates and are generally concerned to explore various 'virtues' such as courage and piety. Although the dialogues end in puzzlement, the doctrine emerges that virtue is knowledge, and that wrong-doing arises from ignorance of what is good. Plato then went on to develop his theory of Forms, with the supreme Form being the Form of the Good. In the later dialogues Plato put forward various objections to the entire theory, and opinion is divided as to whether or not he abandoned it himself.
A pupil and colleague of Plato, Aristotle believed - contrary to Plato - that reality consists of individual substances rather than abstract entities, and that species are secondary. He also studied the nature of valid inference and the logical structure of science. For Aristotle, the distinctive capacity of a person is reason. Human happiness, 'the good for man', thus resides in the exercise of reason both in pure speculation and in the control of one's desires. The latter involves rationally learnt habits that represent the 'golden mean' between the vices of austerity and excess.
UTILITARIANISM
AND JUSTICE
Utilitarianism (at least in a naive form) is an implausible criterion of right action: it might, for example, justify slavery on the grounds that depriving a few people of their liberty increases the average standard of living. One suggestion is that what is wrong here is that the position of the worst-off members of society is worsened by the pursuit of the maximizing principle of utilitarianism.
The American philosopher John Rawls (1921- ) therefore suggests that when drawing up rules for society we should try to ensure fairness by laying down that the right action in any dilemma of moral choice is the one that would produce the situation in which the worst-off person is least badly off. This doctrine seems to be reflected in the taxation and social-welfare systems of modern democracies. Most people think it better that society as a whole should be slightly worse off on average than that unrestricted economic activity should result in even a very few people starving.
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* GOOD AND EVIL
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* MIND AND BODY
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
Encyclopedia
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Logic and Argument (page 1)
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David Hume, Scottish empiricist philosopher, whose avowed aim was to secure the foundation of knowledge by demonstrating that 'false and adulterate metaphysics' only arises when we address subjects beyond the scope of human reason. He used the principle that all legitimate ideas must be derived from experience to cast doubt on the reality of the self and of causal connection. He claimed that inductive reasoning cannot be justified; it is merely a 'habit or custom', a 'principle of human nature'.
`0T0Logic and Argument (1 of 1)
Logic is the study of good and bad argument. During the 20th century, a number of distinct branches have developed: formal or mathematical logic studies symbolic systems that are intended to model certain kinds of argument, while philosophical logic discusses the relationship between such systems and ordinary language, and between language and the world.
Logic is about argument - that is, about rational means of persuasion. The typical situation in which an argument may arise is when the person with whom you are discussing something does not believe something you say; you then offer reasons or grounds for your point of view. On the other hand - for example in mathematics - it may be you yourself who are actually or notionally unsure of something, and you construct a proof, the purpose of which is to convince yourself and anyone who may study it.
The force of argument
What makes such an argument or proof convincing? The first requirement is obviously that the argument starts from a position that is itself accepted. There is no point in trying to persuade an atheist of the existence of God using premises that implicity assume what you intend to prove; that is just begging the question. In a mathematical context, the starting point is likely to be a set of axioms - propositions that are stipulated to be true and about which there can be no argument, since they are what define the theory. In ordinary persuasive rhetoric, the premises need only meet the weaker condition that the other party accepts them; the point of the argument is then to show that he or she must as a consequence of the premises accept the intended conclusion.
What then is the force of this 'must'? It is precisely that acceptance of the premises commits you to the conclusion; that to accept the premises but persist in denying the conclusion would be inconsistent. If we believe that an inconsistent pair of statements, such as 'It is raining outside' and 'It is not raining outside', are both true, we can no longer use our belief in the truth of the first to rule out the truth of the second. We thereby rob ourselves of any distinction between truth and falsehood, and the whole point of argument - that it lets us choose which of two competing statements is true - is undermined. It is indeed possible to construct an argument that shows that from any pair of inconsistent statements anything at all can be deduced.
Correct arguments
Thus, for an argument to be convincing (or sound), it must not only have true (or accepted) premises, but these premises must make the conclusion inescapable. These questions can be considered independently: for example, a mathematician often shows a supposition to be false precisely by deducing an absurdity from it - but that requires him to recognize that the absurdity is logically inescapable given the supposition. Clearly we judge arguments without knowing whether their premises are true. What is at issue is whether the conclusion would have to be true if the premises were true. This property of arguments is called correctness or validity, and consists in it being inconsistent to accept the premises while denying the conclusion. For example, (1) John is a bachelor, so he is unmarried is a correct argument, since the conclusion follows from the definition of a 'bachelor'. On the other hand (2) I have never seen a swan that was not white; so all swans are white
is not a correct argument, since it is perfectly possible for the premise to be true but the conclusion false; this is the case simply because I have limited experience of swans.
The use of counterexamples
The explanation of why (2) is incorrect suggests a way of demonstrating that any argument is not correct. A correct argument will never let us down, irrespective of the truth or falsehood of its premises; so to show that an argument is not correct, all we need to do is find a counterexample - a situation in which the argument does let us down, i.e. in which the premises are true but the conclusion false. The counterexample need not itself have true premises: it is sufficient that it is possible for the argument to let us down for us to have to reject it as invalid.
This is decisive because it shows that the argument is not infallibly truth-preserving: it cannot be relied upon never to lead from truth to falsehood. It would therefore always be an open question whether it had let us down on the very occasion we tried to use it.
This clearly reflects our ordinary conception of what constitutes a good argument. We recognize, for example, that (3) Pigs have wings; if pigs have wings they can fly; so pigs can fly
a correct argument, even though the first premise and the conclusion are false. In fact, a correct argument can have false premises, and an incorrect argument can have true premises; the only combination that cannot occur is true premises, correct argument, but false conclusion.
Formal validity
There is clearly a difference between arguments like (1) above and those like (3). The correctness of the former depends on the meanings of the words, and it is impossible to generalize beyond the context of those words. On the other hand, we can recognize that (3) is in some sense the same argument as (4) Today is Saturday; if today is Saturday I can stay in bed; so I can stay in bed.
The reason we recognize it as the same argument is that the 'shape' or form of the argument is the same. If we use letters to replace the component sentences of (3) and (4), we obtain the same form in each case: (5) P; if P then Q; so Q.
In this case it is possible to generalize beyond the context of a particular argument, since it is obvious that the correctness of (3) and (4) does not depend on what they are about but on their common form. This special case of correctness is called formal validity; it is important because it is possible to develop tests of correctness that are independent of the particular argument and depend only on its form.
Symbolic systems that model certain kinds of argument and enable validity to be determined are known as logics. For example, (5) is derived from (4) by re placing component sentences with symbols. The elements whose pattern determines the validity of these arguments are sentences; the arguments are therefore said to be sententially valid, and (5) is known as a sentential form. On the other hand, (6) All philosophers are bearded; some Glaswegians are philosophers; so some Glaswegians are bearded
is clearly formally valid rather than merely correct, but its validity does not depend on a sentential form. The structure that makes this argument work is at the level of subjects and predicates, and its form can be written (7) All A are B; some C are A; so some C are B
where A, B and C represent the terms of the argument. Different logics are thus needed to test the validity of different kinds of argument: a system of sentential logic obviously cannot assess an argument like (7). One way to test the validity of arguments like this is to use Venn diagrams.
Induction and deduction
Not all argument falls into the kind of mold we have been discussing. As we saw, (2) is not even correct, far less formally valid, yet we build our lives around inferences of this kind, and they are a common tool by which science develops theories out of observations. Arguments like this, which go beyond their premises to a conclusion that is not necessitated by the premises, are known as inductive arguments, by contrast with deductive arguments, such as (3) and (6), in which the conclusion is strictly a consequence of the premises.
Since with inductive reasoning there is no guarantee that true premises will ever yield a true conclusion, philosophers have often discussed how it can be justified. Expedients such as choosing a large sample from diverse sources do not address the fundamental concern that the conclusion might still turn out to be false. Nor can inductive reasoning be justified because it works, since that is itself an inductive argument of precisely the kind we are seeking to justify. It is, of course, always possible to turn an argument like (2) into a formally valid argument by adding as an additional premise that the observed sample is typical of the entire population, or that the future will resemble the past, and so forth. But that does not make the argument any more convincing, since the truth of the new premise is no less doubtful than the correctness of the original argument.
Discussion of the justification of inductive argument has proved inconclusive. Indeed, many philosophers in the tradition of Hume and Wittgenstein have argued that the demand for justification is itself at fault. We do not seek a justification of deduction, and if one is in fact offered, it must be inherently circular. Likewise, arguing inductively - learning from experience - is part of what we mean by behaving rationally and does not stand in need of any other justification.
SLIPPERY SLOPES
Abortion is a vexed moral issue, but both parties in the debate agree that, except in certain extreme conditions, it is morally wrong to kill a living person; the disagreement is about whether the fetus is a living person. The opponent of abortion cites the fetus just prior to delivery: surely this is as much a living person as five minutes later when it is at its mother's breast. The advocate of the 'right to choose' abortion cites the fetus immediately after conception: surely this is no more a living person than the same cells were five minutes earlier before they combined.
As they stand, these positions are not in conflict; they seem to support what is the legal position in many countries - that abortion before a certain date is permissible and after that date is wrong. Such laws, then, are not simply a compromise: they follow from arguments about when the fetus should be ascribed the status of a living person.
In the absence of any metaphysical argument for one instant rather than another, both camps agree that from conception to delivery there is no relevant difference between one instant and the next, and so no instant at which the fetus changes from not being a living person to being one; this is why their positions are in conflict. For consider the three statements:
(1 ) The fetus immediately after conception is not a living person;
(2) The fetus immediately prior to delivery is a living person;
(3) There is no instant at which the fetus changes from not being a living person to being one.
Clearly these form an inconsistent set - they cannot all be true. But which of the three should be rejected? All we can conclude is that if any pair of them is true, then the third must be false. The outright opponent of abortion thus argues from (2) and (3) to deny (1 ); the advocate of an absolute 'right to choose' might argue from (1 ) and (3) to deny (2); and the law appears to deny (3) on the grounds of arguments for both (1 ) and (2).
Which of these arguments should we accept? For an argument to be convincing two things are required: that its premises are true and that its form is valid. All these arguments are equally valid, so we seem to be thrown back on assessing which of the three statements is false - which is the very question we were attempting to answer. Many people, presented with each of these statements separately, or presented with a trio of the same form but about a less emotive subject, actually assent to all three - even when their apparent contradiction is pointed out.
Modern philosophy does not seek to square this circle. Instead it uses examples like this to show that the logic of contradiction is not as clear-cut as it at first seems: perhaps statements can be other than true or false; perhaps there are shades of gray, at least when we are dealing with concepts that are themselves vague or a matter of degree. Perhaps we should stop thinking of the world as divided sharply between persons and non-persons; perhaps even this basic moral notion is a matter of degree. Wherever we place the blame, we have come a long way for a solution: we began with a real practical moral and political debate, and we have found in it reason for questioning the very basis of all reasoning - the logic of truth and falsehood itself.
* THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
* LOGIC, SETS AND PARADOXES
* WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
* MIND AND BODY
* ETHICS
* THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
Outline
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The Philosophy of Language (page 1)
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John Locke, English empiricist philosopher and political theorist. He regarded philosophy as clearing the conceptual ground for science, and began his Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690) by rejecting the doctrine of innate ideas and postulating instead that all ideas are derived from experience. Shown here is a contemporary copy of a portrait by Godfrey Kneller (1697). (Archiv fer Kunst)
The Philosophy of Language (1 of 2)
The most unproblematic way of explaining the meaning of a word seems to be to point to what that word stands for (its reference), and indeed philosophers have traditionally identified the meaning of a word with its reference. But this theory appears to fall foul of the simple observation that we often talk of things that do not exist (for example fictional characters and ghosts) and such talk is not meaningless. But the referential model is so powerful that philosophers have generally preferred to postulate various kinds of abstract entities for the words to refer to, rather than admit that the theory is wrong.
Plato, for example, thought that general terms like 'justice' or 'circle' or 'horse' name Forms - abstract entities existing in some unchanging metaphysical realm that is accessible only to properly trained reason - while Locke believed that they name abstract ideas that enter the mind by a process of abstraction from experience. For all the differences of detail, Plato and Locke agree in their underlying theory of meaning: both held that the meaning of a word is simply the thing that it names; all they disagree about is what kind of thing this might be.
Meaning and reference
This referential theory looks quite plausible for one class of words. Names of people, places and things seem to do no more than label them; the meaning of the name 'Fido' is simply the dog Fido.
Names thus seem to contrast with descriptions like 'red' or 'round', whose function is to ascribe a property. Nonetheless, in the absence of any alternative to reference as an account of meaning, philosophers from Plato to Bertrand Russell were faced with the problem that if an expression lacked a reference it seemed to be just meaningless. It was thus to provide meanings for general terms that philosophers such as Plato and Locke advanced the theories they did.
Sense and reference
At the end of the 19th century, the German philosopher Gottlob Frege argued that there must be more to meaning than reference, even for names. After all, he said, if 'Cicero' and 'Tully' are two names used by the same Roman, 'Cicero was Cicero' and 'Cicero was Tully' are equally true, but there is obviously a difference between what these two sentences tell us. Frege proposed that in addition to a reference a word has a sense, which is how it determines its reference. The reason 'Cicero was Tully' is informative is that the two names have different senses, which determine the same reference in different ways.
The divergence of sense and reference is quite clear in the way we use, for example, the personal and demonstrative pronouns in ordinary language. Obviously the reference of a word such as 'you' or 'here' depends upon where and when it is used. But we do not ordinarily want to say that these words are ambiguous: the reason their reference is so variable is that their meaning depends on the context of use. Frege's notion that sense determines reference is analogous to this obvious fact.
Names and descriptions
Bertrand Russell also recognized that ordinary names could not function purely referentially - not least because we meaningfully give names to things that do not exist at all. His solution looks similar to Frege's, since they both claimed that behind an ordinary name there is a description that really determines what is referred to, but in fact their solutions are radically different. This difference can be seen in practice in the way they treat a sentence such as 'Sherlock Holmes is bald', which seems to refer to someone who does not exist.
According to Frege, the sense of the name 'Sherlock Holmes' might be, say, 'the detective who lives at 221B Baker Street', and our sentence will be true if that detective is bald and false if he is not. But in this case, since there is no detective who lives at 221B Baker Street, nothing at all satisfies the description, so no one is picked out as having baldness ascribed to him; for Frege the given sentence is therefore neither true nor false.
For Russell, on the other hand, only meaningless sentences can lack a truth value, and it is clearly not meaningless to say that Sherlock Holmes is bald. Russell's theory of descriptions involves two steps of analysis: first, since he has no concept of sense, he regards the description as actually the meaning of the name (so the name just abbreviates the description); secondly, it is part of the meaning of names and definite descriptions that they denote exactly one individual, and this can only be explained in the context of the whole sentence. Thus, for example, 'Sherlock Holmes is bald' is analyzed into three separate claims: (1) there is at least one detective who lives at 221B Baker Street; (2) there is at most one detective who lives at 221B Baker Street; and (3) any detective who lives at 221B Baker Street is bald. Since (1) is clearly false, Russell judges that the given sentence is false.
More recently, the Oxford philosopher Peter Strawson (1919- ) offered a resolution of this conflict: he pointed out that it is linguistic expressions that have meaning, while uses of them have reference or truth; for example, 'you' only has one meaning (say, 'the person being spoken to'), whereas its reference changes from conversation to conversation. Thus Frege is right that the sentence is meaningful but lacks a truth value, while Russell is right about how to determine its truth value when it has one.
Even Frege postulated abstract entities ('concepts') to be the references of general terms. More recently, however, the presupposition that for a word to be intelligible it must refer to something has been challenged at a deeper level, principally by Ludwig Wittgenstein.
To be fair, the idiom of the English language is against us: we talk of words having a meaning and of ambiguous words having more than one meaning. It is then natural to ask what these meanings are, and how we establish whether or not the meanings as independently existing entities of two words are the same. However, language is often misleading and the fact that we distinguish expressions with meaning from those without is insufficient to show that there exist meanings as independently existing entities that the former possess and that the latter lack.
What is more, as Wittgenstein argued, both Platonic Forms and Lockean mental images would drop out of the kind of explanation we actually give of how we use language. Let us suppose either of these accounts correct, and consider how, for example, we would determine whether a child has yet learnt some concept. We have no way of directly examining either the ideas in its mind or its grasp of a Form; instead what we invariably do is to base our judgment upon whether or not the child behaves as if it has grasped the concept. We are thus doing no more or less than judging whether the child's use of the term accords sufficiently with our own; abstract or mental entities make as little difference to this judgment, says Wittgenstein, as would a paper crown on a chess piece to its moves in a game.
This kind of argument not only undermines the conception of a meaning as some kind of mystical entity, but it also opens our eyes to the fact that words do not all have sharply defined uses. On the contrary, once we have learnt the use of a word, we are bound to go beyond the limited range of cases in which our teachers corrected our errors; we are all familiar with arguments about whether turquoise is blue or green and about where its boundaries are. In fact, when we meet a new phenomenon, our usage is not determined by previous use, but we have to decide how to extend previous usage. We do not, of course, have complete freedom to call a fish a bicycle; we try to make our new usage conform to previous usage, but this is as much a new case of conforming as it is a potentially new kind of fish, and we are to that extent free to choose here too.
Thus language is indeed dynamic and open-ended in a way that earlier theories could not allow, and its relation with the world can be equally multi-faceted. As Wittgenstein remarked, there is no more to supposing that all language works like names do, by referring, than there is to supposing that deep down all tools are somehow hammers.
LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN
Despite publishing very little, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) became the most influential philosopher of the 20th century. He developed two highly original but incompatible systems of philosophy, both dominated by a concern with the relations between language and the world.
The early doctrines of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) are based on a highly structured logico-metaphysical theory: 'the world is the totality of facts . . . not of things' and these can be analyzed into 'atomic facts', which are literally 'pictured' by 'atomic propositions'. However, the philosophical propositions of the Tractatus itself, being about - not of - the world, can only be shown, not said, and 'whereof we cannot speak, thereof we must keep silent'. Believing that he had said all that could be said, Wittgenstein, true to his word, abandoned philosophy and became a teacher. However, his interest was reawakened by contact with the Vienna Circle of logical positivists, and he returned to Cambridge where his unpublished lectures influenced another generation of philosophers.
His later view, as expressed in the Philosophical Investigations (1953), is that language is a varied social phenomenon for which there is no single criterion of correctness nor a single explanatory metaphor. There can be no criterion to distinguish following a private rule from thinking one is doing so; so the rules of language in particular cannot depend upon any essentially private entities such as Lockean ideas. The later Wittgenstein consistently walks a narrow path between the two competing orthodoxies: he denies both that there is some external fact by virtue of which all red things are red, and that there is nothing whatever to determine our usage of the word. Likewise 'Pain is not a something, but it is not nothing either' - it is neither a private mental entity nor is it merely to be identified with behavior. The other-minds problem thus arises from typical philosophical misunderstanding of metaphorical language. Philosophy should not construct grandiose theories which tend to distort language, but merely 'assemble reminders' about its use.
DOING THINGS WITH WORDS
The variety of language use has been stressed by others as well as Wittgenstein. The Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin (1911-60) remarked that some sentences do not report facts but instead perform acts, and so cannot be true or false but only appropriate or inappropriate; 'I hereby appoint you my deputy' is such a performative utterance. Another theory in the same tradition is that of the English philosopher H.P. Grice, who identified a number of 'maxims of conversational cooperativeness', such as 'always give as much information as you can' or 'stick to the subject'. He then suggested that we are entitled to infer whatever is necessary to explain an apparent breach of these maxims. For example, if I ask you where my coat is and you reply 'Either in the hall or in the wardrobe', I am entitled to believe that you yourself do not know which, since if you did you could have given a better answer. This theory of conversational implicature has been used to clarify a variety of traditional problems. For example, if - as is commonly said - knowledge is justified true belief, then 'John knows he is ill' must imply 'John believes he is ill', yet by saying the latter I seem to suggest he isn't really. If, however, we distinguish truth from appropriateness, then saying that 'John believes he is ill' is not false but inappropriate, because the presupposition that I am complying with the maxims requires me to give the stronger answer if I am in a position to do so.
This is a very fruitful theory, and has the merit of treating language as a species of deliberate behavior. Thus, just as I can infer from your behavior a rational explanation for your acting as you did, so I make similar inferences not just from what you say but also from how you say it.
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